The Application of Cognitive Learning Theory in Learning How to Read and Use Maps - Essay Example

The Application of Cognitive Learning Theory in Learning How to Read and Use Maps Introduction Learning a particular task can be simple or complicated, depending upon the processes and knowledge required to acquire the skill. Various disciplines in the social sciences, especially psychology, attempted to explain the mechanisms of learning by formulating distinct theories of learning such as behaviourism, social learning theory, humanism, and cognitive learning. These specific theories emerged as a response to the demand of explaining the components and catalysts of learning which are specifically useful to the field of education, and as a response to the weaknesses of a prevailing learning theory. The objective of this essay is to examine the potentials of one of the learning theories aforementioned, the cognitive learning theory, in identifying and explaining the components and mechanisms of learning a particular task. For this essay, learning how to read and use a map will be explored by applying the cognitivist approach. Primarily, the essay will provide a brief overview of the task of learning how to read and use a map and its importance in the discipline of geography. Afterwards, the types of knowledge required to acquire or learn the particular skill will be discussed, and then the cognitive learning theory, as it applies to the learning task of reading and using a map, will be examined. Specifically, Piaget’s and the neo-Vygotskian’s theories will be employed in explaining the chosen learning task. And lastly, the essay will conclude the discussion by identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the cognitive learning theory, relative to other learning theories, in explaining the task of learning how to read and use a map. An Overview: Learning How to Read and Use a Map The discipline of geography explores the relationship between human beings and the earth, and particularly takes into account the environment, location and space. In studying locations and geographical subjects, geographers illustrate and identify the mechanisms and structures they observe in their physical environment. Hence study of spatial structures and the acquisition of locational knowledge shape distinguishing and core components of the field, with various kinds of maps being an essential tool in this practice (Palmer & Birch, 2004). A great deal of the geographical literature involves a broad array of maps which have to be ‘read.’ The precision of the interpretation hinges on the proficiency of the mapmaker in providing the messages and the skill of the user to read and understand the pointers. The paradigm of the map as a communication tool expresses the requirement for a general interpretation of map language or else there will be uncertainty and confusion. Similar to any language the general principles and the compositions have to be learnt if the information is to be understood. There is extensive evidence that learners ultimately accomplish this through an organised programme entailing exercise in the individual components and in combining them (Gersmehl, 2005). Interpreting maps entails learning how to read them. Dissimilar from learning how to read a book there are no existing straight techniques for map reading, such as reading from left to right, thus expert map-readers could make use of techniques such as preliminary unsystematic scanning to make out attributes or common names and afterwards concentrate on their field of study or they could search for more identifiable patterns. Novice users of maps require definite training and instruction on where and how to begin map reading. The Geography National Curriculum (DFE, 1995, as cited in Gersmehl, 2005, 43) enumerates the constructing, using and reading of maps as the expertise that learners should acquire. Kinds of Knowledge Required If organised learning through maps is to take place, teacher and learner must be knowledgeable of the fundamental basic features of maps that establish most map proficiency learning courses. Gerber and Wilson (1989), in illustrating an organised mapping course for children of secondary education, suggest four basic features of maps that have to be learned: ‘plan view, arrangement, proportion and map language’ (ibid, p. 202). These features should create the foundation of map-work expertise progress for learners and can be initiated individually and afterwards integrated. Plan View Maps are sketched gazing perpendicularly down a particular location, which allows the user to look at attributes which may be unseen from the ground. The model should be introduced and exercised due to the fact that the plan view is an unusual perspective. Learners are much more used to distances from the ground, and initially normally sketch houses from this viewpoint. Though there is nothing wrong with this inexperienced map depiction as a kind of representation, but learners should be persuaded to visualise the image of the house from above (Knight, 1993). Learning to read a map from the unfamiliar perspective primarily involves dispositional knowledge since learners should be able to visualise the image of their geographical location from an aerial view. Learners should not merely visualise but to internalise these aerial images so that they could proficiently provide a map interpretation when needed. Perpendicular aerial images demonstrate some of the difficulties in symbolising elevation or angle on a map as the two-dimensional image usually provides slight idea of the elevation’s third dimension. The depiction of relief on a map is a significant but complicated impression for learners to cope with. Contours, the most frequently used type of relief illustration, are as well the most frequent cause of perplexity for most readers of map as they create intricate patterns and are commonly confused by other attributes (Knight, 1993). In this case, learners should be skilled in conditional knowledge since the task involves identifying the appropriateness of symbols, or the ‘when’ and ‘where’ map representations should be applied in order to have an accurate interpretation of the map. Arrangement Locations or attributes on maps have a position that can be totally identified, by features such as grid orientations, and illustrated relative to other locations, such as west of, south of, etc. This allows users of maps to locate particular places quickly and without difficulty on complicated maps. Direction can be fixed, such as making use of an absolute reference scheme- N,E,S,W, or in relation to the location of the user (Smith, 2002). This particular task of learning the notion of absolute space, propositional knowledge is required since the learner should be able to identify the relativity of objects or locations to their position as user of the map. Propositional knowledge is needed in familiarising the map to match the pattern of seen objects. Proportion Maps shrink objects’ size on the ground in order that the object can be symbolised on a paper. It is typically essential that relative size is sustained, yet in a number of instances significant attributes are represented larger than their actual size. Scale is another confusing feature for numerous map readers (Smith, 2002). Procedural knowledge is required in measuring distance through the use of scale. It necessitates numerical manoeuvring and commonly involves a sequence of complicated procedures. The cutback in size indicates a number of details will be lost, including the maker of the map in assortment of pieces to be incorporated. Hence, whilst aerial images document everything observed at a given period, maps are simplifications which, in enhancing precision, can lead into bias and error (Palmer & Birch, 2004). Therefore, procedural knowledge is required in learning how to improve the clarity and accuracy of maps. Map Language Maps display messages by the application of symbols and marks, and supplementary information is provided through the application of letters, words, and digits which assist in the deciphering and interpretation. Learners should acquire the skill of not just reading symbols but as well as reading the spatial structures by using their geographical knowledge. In this particular learning task, conditional knowledge is preferred since in learning map language it is important to identify that map representations and messages can be categorised into three types: areas, points and lines (Palmer & Birch, 2004). The learner should be able to know ‘when’ and ‘where’ the symbols applied can be categorised on a variety from graphic to conceptual with the more conceptual representations commonly being more prone to misreading. To sum it up, learners should learn that maps normally implement a plan view standpoint; organise the attributes in the same patterns as they are in actual form; maintain attributes in precise proportion to their actual scale or size; include the assortment of information; and make use of a familiar map language. And apparently, the task of learning how to read and use maps requires four types of knowledge: propositional, procedural, dispositional and conditional. However, aside from the required four kinds of knowledge, there are techniques that could be used in learning through maps that involve different sorts of knowledge. These techniques that are usually used by inexperienced and novice map readers and users makes the acquisition of skilful map reading easier. The discussion of these different forms of knowledge will be illustrated through situational examples. Locational Knowledge David is trying to look for places and attributes he has been exploring on a map representation of the British Isles. He recalls that Wales, Scotland and England are the given names of the nations of Great Britain and that on top of England is Scotland. He recognises that London is a great city and compared to a country a city is much smaller. He makes use of the legend to locate the mark for a city. He recalls the fairly accurate location of London because he has seen its location before in a road map. He identifies the zigzagging line on the map as a river named River Thames where London is located. He wrongly estimated the location of Birmingham as he merely recognises it as the northern part of London. David’s technique involves remembering the names of various places and attributes. In order to successfully locate the places he had to sort the various attributes and have some knowledge of the concepts of city, country and river. His identification of the outlines and organisation of attributes in the British Isles allowed him to fuse this understanding while the terms in the legend provided her supplementary signs in interpreting the map. He experienced problems in locating Birmingham, in part due to the absence of familiar attributes nearby and due to his poor knowledge of distance. The direction from house to school Sarah, when instructed to sketch a map of her trip to school as section of a subject on her neighbourhood, says, ‘Well, that is quite easy’. She begins by attempting to imagine the trip and thinking whether she can fit it on a small piece of paper. In one side of the map the house is marked and the streets on the path sketched in sequence and geographically until she arrives at school, which is compressed into another side of the paper. Extensive visualisation and thinking is needed to show relationships and there are a number of errors, erasures and re-sketching before the path is finished. When instructed to attach supplementary detain, she includes adjacent streets, their names, graphic signs, a legend and a path arrow. She draws the southern path, from her familiarity of the position of the sun at noontime at her house, and is afterwards able to sketch the remaining compass directions. Sarah’s thinking made use of everyday experiences and knowledge accumulated in her memory to solve problems. This capability to remember her mental image of the vicinity along with a clear knowledge of map features allowed her to sketch understandably the arrangement of recognisable streets and to draw an identifiable map. She experienced problems with distance, thus the map was not sketched to scale, such as streets nearer her house were exaggerated, and she squeezed the drawing of her arrival to school since she ran out of space on the paper. She portrayed the difficulties most learners have in sketching mental maps, due to the necessity to remember and fuse intricate patterns and arrangements. Nonetheless, she as well as demonstrated how valuable mental maps are for educators in providing information about the knowledge and understanding of learners of map proficiencies and places. Cognitive Learning Theory and Learning How to Read and Use Maps Geographical instruction has consistently been interested with the methodical teaching and learning of skills in map reading. There are several comprehensive descriptions of suitable teaching and learning courses (Gersmehl, 2005). This section will not discuss a course of work but explores instead a number of cognitive development theories that enlighten our awareness of advancement in map proficiencies, and suggests how these theories can be associated to learning. Meadows (1993) proposes there are three main existing theories of cognitive development: ‘Piaget’s model of stages, information processing models and Neo-Vygotskian models’ (ibid, pp.197-198). The most relevant of these cognitivist approaches for learning how to read and use maps is Piaget, even though there has been disapproval of the manner that the work of Piaget has been used wrongly by several teachers who, by passively sticking on fixed and rigid stages, have undervalued learner’s skills in reading and using maps (O’Donnell, 1999). The model of Piaget The work of Piaget is founded on a biological paradigm of adaptation. The learner is, for the most part, dynamically attempting to understand the world, similar to any organism that should try to adjust to its immediate environment. The model of Piaget has been recognised by educators as proposing that thinking evolves in a sequence of phases, the ‘sensori-motor, pre-operational, concrete operational and formal operational phases’ (Meadows, 1993, 198). These development stages pursue a balanced pattern and each phase can be related to a particular mental age. This quite simple paradigm has been described and explained by different scholars and has resulted in a structured course for the development of skills in map which has been implemented in several educational institutions (Mithaug et al., 2003). It is evident from the discussion that most learners will benefit from beginning to acquire map skills in an actual manner in a context or environment they are most familiar with, such as neighbourhood or school, and only proceeding onto more conceptual maps at a later stage. Nevertheless, it should be considered that Piaget did not view his paradigm of developmental stages as an educational framework and it is at present acknowledged as simply one way of reflecting about cognitive learning. Information Processing Information processing paradigms make use of the allegory of the brain as a central processing unit and there have been a number of attempts to simulate the spatial aptitudes of learners with computers (Mithaug et al., 2003). The previous discussions demonstrate how proficient users of map function like computers and are capable to establish relationships between identified patterns and arrangement, and accumulated knowledge. Neo-Vygotskian Paradigms Meadows (1993) claims that the models of Piaget and of information-processing underline the psychological processes inside the minds of individuals whereas neo-Vygotskian insights have the argument that social interaction is dominant; if, as proposed by Vygotsky, language possesses the potential to influence cognitive development as well as social interaction is a primary means in which individuals learn, ‘what the child can do co-operatively today she will be able to do individually tomorrow’ (Knight, 1993, 26), in that case this has propositions for learning. Contract to Piaget the model of neo-Vygotskian has a basic view that education can speed up cognitive development, which promotes the notion of ‘scaffolding’ learning (Knight, 1993, 27). For example, the idea of plan view can be initiated by glancing down on items organised on a small table and talking about this perspective. Rhodes (1994, 111) has demonstrated how in deciding about paramount directions for various transportation networks, maps and relief representations can be employed by children, discussing and working in teams, to read slope and relief arrangements. Metacognition While a number of learners could develop skills in map reading by a mechanism of osmosis through introduction to maps, for most learners learning is guided by definite and focused instruction, specifically if they are directed to reflect their way of thinking. Knight (1993) defines metacognition ‘as helping children to be conscious of what they know and can do and then teaching them how to draw purposefully on that knowledge and to deploy it when working on problems” (ibid, p. 35). Educators can motivate learners to reflect about their learning by inquiring, “How did you acquire that solution or obtain that answer?” or asking them to defend a solution or an answer. Travellers carry out the abovementioned task when they talk about and evaluate their path finding after an occasion. Usually there is an option between a shorter path that could be actually longer because it passes through thick woods and a longer direction but faster along routes. By examining the benefits and drawbacks of each path the travellers are improving their familiarity with the selection of messages on the map and their capability to generate accurate readings. Discussion and difference can result in to metacognitive disagreement and thus metacognitive progress. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Cognitive Learning Theory Dissimilar to behaviourism, which puts emphasis merely on discernible behaviours, cognitive learning theory is focused on internal mental processes. Cognitive learning is particularly useful in explaining the components and processes of learning how to read and use maps since the task is more oriented on the mental conditions required to acquire map skills. Dissimilar to psychoanalysis, which depends significantly on subjective insights, cognitive learning theories make use of scientific research techniques to explore mental mechanisms. Acquiring map skills focuses more on precise methods such as learning to interpret map symbols precisely than on subjective concepts. Similarly, social learning theory and humanism are too subjective to explain inclusively the task of learning how to read and use map. These theories focus on overall personality evaluation and self-actualisation which are quite irrelevant to the study of the chosen task. On the other hand, the extreme emphasis of the cognitive learning theory on positivist approach reduces the learners’ meaning of their perception, such as their visualisation of their mental maps, as evaluations deprived of all significance. By representing the learners’ mental functions and their experiences with directions as measurements, cognitivist approach is taking for granted the context and, hence, the value of these assessments. At times, individual meaning of experience acquired from exposure to maps and actual applications of directions and scales is a fundamental feature of individual psychology that has to be interpreted and understood. Conclusions Geographers view maps as instruments that allow them to convey knowledge and understanding of locations, spatial features and environment. Particularly, maps allow an account of the spatial features that are essential to geography. In order to advance their knowledge of maps completely, learners must have the opportunity to draw, read, use and interpret maps in various settings. Any teaching and learning course formulated should bring in the four fundamental features of maps and the complementary types of knowledge required in learning the skill for each feature. Learners learn map skills successfully if they have a lucid concept of the goal of the learning task being embark upon. In addition, precise reading and interpretation of maps necessitates not just identification of representations and patterns but the fusion of messages from the map with accumulated geographical knowledge. Lastly, our knowledge of cognitive development indicates that learners should operate initially from actual experience only later proceeding onto more conceptual maps, and that they should be motivated to reflect dynamically about their own way of thinking since this helps in the synthesising process and in the development of interpretation capabilities. References Amsel, A. (1989). Behaviorism, Neobehaviorism, and Cognitivism in Learning Theory: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Blanton, B. B. (1998). The Application of the Cognitive Learning Theory to Instructional Design. 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Teaching Geography in Secondary Schools: A Reader. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Read More