Theories of Language Acquisition - Essay Example

Introduction There are numerous theories that have, and continue to try, to explain language acquisition. The theory of language acquisition has been greatly influenced by linguists and psychologists (Kiymazarslan, 2001). Theories have centered on the “nature/nurture” debate. A nurture view considers that knowledge comes from personal experience of interaction with the environment (empiricism). Whereas a nurture approach considers knowledge to be innate, genetic endowment. Contemporary theories differed in their degree of attributing language acquisition to both nature and nurture. There is also another debate relevant to language acquisition and which also differentiates theories - to what degree is language a separate process from cognition/behavior, or dependant upon them. As language is a complex system with various interacting elements, it is unlikely that a single theory of language acquisition is feasible (Clibbens, 2001). However it does appear that different factors are dominant at particular stages of development. This paper will review theories of language acquisition and their relationship to the academic outcomes of 16 students enrolled in a childcare course. First, popular theories of language acquisition will be presented. Secondly the process of langue development in a child will be outlined, whilst emphasizing developmental stages that vocab, syntax and pragmatics occur. Finally, an indication of learning developments at secondary school and at higher education will be discussed, particularly in regard to students undertaking a childcare course. I would like to remind the reader of Clibbens warning of not to be caught up in the various debates which can deviate from the true purpose of helping all children, young people and adults to use language and communicate. Theories It is generally accepted that language acquisition is partly innate and partly environmental (Bickerton, 1990). It is generally conceded that for all people, language development is a gradual process that occurs through general development and interaction with people and the environment. Nurture Skinner Skinner’s (1957) behavioral approach to language acquisition was simply a set of habits. He did not consider language to be different to any other behavior. The learner of a language is a tabular rosa - an empty slate. He ignored nativist approaches of innate knowledge, as the inner workings of language were unobservable, and so un-measurable. Skinner insisted that interaction with the environment leads to stimulus-response conditioning, and that the product of this is knowledge. For example, an unconditional environment brings about an unconditional response, the response is followed by an event that is to the liking of the learning organism, and the response becomes positively reinforced. If this sequence of events occurs a number of times, the organism learns to associate the response to the stimulus to the reinforcement. So that when encountering the stimuls again, the same response will be elicited, and so becomes a conditioned response. Behaviorism considers that all learning, including language occurs through this process of establishing habits. Hence, linguistic input is due to linguistic utterances in one’s environment as stimulus. However, it has been noted in research since, that imitation alone does not allow for language acquisition, and simplistic stimulus-response conditionings do not account for it either (Kiyamazarslan, 2001). Piaget Piaget (1952) was a biologist and a psychologist and yet he felt that language acquisition was due to social interaction (cited in Kiymazarslan, 2001). He saw a child’s language ability as being reflected in their ability to manipulate symbols, and that a child learns when they are developmentally ready to. During Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (0-2 years) the child begins to understand its environment. The preoperational stage is from 2-7 years and is when the child begins to understand the use of symbols in communication. From 7-11 years is the concrete operational stage, where mental tasks and langue use are evident. The formal operational stage from 11 years onwards, Piaget advocated, was concerned with abstract thinking. Piaget emphasized the pre-linguistic phase of development (0-1 years) as especially important for the development of sensory-motor development, and for the child to become aware of their physical identity. He also felt that egocentric speech played no part on its own in language acquisition, unlike the writings of his contemporary Vygotsky. Piaget also did not consider language as being separate from other cognitive processes; in fact he saw language acquisition as a natural part of cognitive development. Vygotsky Vygostsky (1962) was a Russian psychologist (cited in Kiymazarslan, 2001). He felt that language had a primary role in all of human development. Importantly, he considered words as essential to the development of the cognitive system. Vygotsky contended that a child’s language development resulted from social interaction, as he considered all other learning to be due to social interaction as well. He was especially interested in the role language had to play in human behavior. Vygotsky wrote of “shared language” to represent a child’s social interaction, and that this sharing directly contributed to development of thought and language. This was achieved through his concept of “the zone of proximal development”. This is the distance between actual development due to independent problem solving of the child, and the level of potential development determined by guidance from more capable peers or significant adults. Vygotsky believed that concepts were formed through interaction with peers and adults, and that the child then used these concepts to problem solve on its own. Hence, social interaction facilitates a child’s reliance on its own resources. Vygotsky also emphasized that egocentric speech is necessary for language development. It is used less when playing on one’s own than when playing with others. This implies that society inspires speech. Contrasting theories often point to Vygotsky’s overemphasis on the role of egocentric speech, and that ironically he ignored the role of “self” in the language acquisition process (Kiymazarslan, 2001). Nature Chomsky For Chomsky (1959), language is a separate area of knowledge to the rest of cognition. In contrast to Skinner, Chomsky did not consider there to be a direct relationship between words and their assigned meanings. Chomsky filled in the gaps from Skinner’s theory that did not account for a child’s ability to recognize the grammatical structure of a sentence even if it does not make sense; that a sentence can have numerous meanings; and that the same meaning can be represented in different ways within most languages. Chomsky also argued that Skinner’s argument that grammar can be entirely learned is flawed. He pointed to the language environment surrounding the child as being a poor medium of stimulus input for learning language. Chomsky states that as a child only hears a portion of possible sentences, and that there is no direct relationship between the words heard and the rules that apply. Also, children are often given no indication as to which sentences are not grammatical. Hence, according to Chomsky, unless a child is already knowledgeable about language it is unable to learn grammar according to Skinner’s theory. Additionally, Chomsky argues that the stimulus-response theory is not based on empirical evidence, and does not account for the internal processes of the speaker during language acquisition. Unlike Piaget, Chomsky considers language to be a separate cognitive process, especially as it appears to be not related to IQ. Chomsky also views language acquisition as being stable across a wide range of environmental variations. So that the relationship between language acquisition and social deprivation, or cross-cultural differences, is not a simple direct relationship. Instead, within the brain there is a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) and so exists universal grammatical rules. These grammatical rules regulate categories, rather than words. For example, no language inverts the order of random words to form a question; most invert the subject and auxiliary. This is a universal phenomenon. Clibbens (2001) points out that Chomsky never claims in his writings that all language is innate, for example he accepted that vocabulary was learnt. Language Devlopment For language, representations are grounded in a system of language, and there are specific procedures for selecting vocabulary, grammatical rules, and pragmatic conventions (Bickerton, 1990). From my readings, it is generally conceded that significant others in a child’s life, and their interaction with the child, contribute significantly to determine the first five years of their human development. It appears that it critical that for a child to develop reading, writing and talking abilities that strong oral ability is necessary (Kiymazarslan, 2001). Primarily, what needs to be strengthened during childhood are vocabulary and concept development, so that information about word meanings (semantics) and pronunciation of words (phonemics) is provided. Also, understanding how language transmits meaning through grammar (sentence structure) is important, as is the awareness of cultural norms for communication (pragmatics). Without these foundations it is unlikely that as an adult a person will desire, and have the ability, to use speech, reading and writing. I find it fascinating that from birth a child is learning language. They are aware of sounds in their environment, and if hearing, are able to listen to speech in the near vicinity, and are startled and cry by the unexpected. The unusual sounds a child makes are a way for them to experience life, and to communicate with significant others. During this time, it is critical to be aware that caregiver interactions, including communication with language, influence attachment style of the child and so influences their interpersonal relationships in later life. A child whose cries are continually not attended to will grow to distrust others (Kiymazarslan, 2001). As toddlers, children engage in “vocal play” and also babble, that may sound like talking. There are many two lipped sounds such as “p” and “m”, they can make noises that communicate what they want or where they want to go. Again, if significant caregivers are unable to, or choose not to, respond to communications initiated by the child, the child learns to mistrust others. Also, they are less willing to interact with their peers, and so miss out on opportunities to practice their communication (Clibbens, 2001). The first words (vocab) are spoken between 1 and 18 months. During the time of 7 to 12 months the child should be having fun as it listens when spoken to and learns simple rhyming games. At this time children are often surprising in their being able to name so many objects, can ask questions, and undertake requests. By two years there is a rapid advance in language development and they are using many words and combinations. A child is considered to be a "late talker" if they have a vocab of less than 50 words at around 24 months (Kiymazarslan, 2001). By 4 to 5 years a child is using word sentences, and grammar (sentence structure or syntax) is correct most of the time. From five years onwards, pre-school and school studies instruct the child in the pragmatics of language, such as interpreting what is spoken to them, talking themselves, and using writing in culturally specific ways. In this way a child learns to know that they have to answer a question that is asked of them, can participate in conversation with others by taking turns, are aware of and can respond to non-verbal communication and have knowledge of grammatical structures to use when initiating a conversation or responding to what another has said. Importantly, children become aware of how to differentiate when to use different conversational patterns for different interpersonal situations (Clibbens, 2001). Impacts of Limited Language Development It is obvious to me that a limited development of language can impact drastically on many aspects of language for the adult student: its receptive functions (being able to understand what is said to one, being able to read and to understand non-verbal gestures); its expressive functions (the ability to converse, write and use non-verbal language); its pragmatics (correct interpretation of others speech, writing and gestures in culturally accepted ways). For example, let us imagine a tertiary situation where there are 16 students undertaking a child care course who have limited language development themselves. One would expect the students to not be very sociable in character, due to their difficulties in communication, and so to be having learning difficulties as well. People who have language difficulties are more at risk of speech impairments, ungrammatical sentences, voice disorders and of having problems with the pragmatics of language, any of which are associated with difficulties with interpersonal relationships, especially with peers. For a childcare student, these interpersonal difficulties would be a serious constraint on their ability to complete assignments, to fully comprehend the course they are doing, and to communicate what they have learnt to others. Also, the interpersonal issues would include their communicative relationships with young children as well. It is unlikely that they would be as responsive to a child as it is likely they had distant relationships themselves with their significant others, and so have not established trust in others or in their own abilities as caregivers. Also, the childcare student may be confused as to what the “right thing to say”, as they are unsure of the pragmatics or have difficulties with the actual words and grammar. As for their academic life, the students would likely experience much distress and anxiety. Being able to read and write, a necessity for a tertiary study, is directly influenced by a person’s ability comprehend and use language. As the childcare students in our example are unlikely to be strong readers and writers, they are also unlikely to be proficient at listening and speaking either. Throughout their life at school, language has played a dominant part of these students’ studies. However, contemporary research shows that, for some, the student is at high-without having mastered language. Secondary school uses much more complex forms of language, increases their vocabulary and expands their sentence structures, whilst emphasising different patterns of language for different social situations. It is unlikely that the students in our example were able to comprehend and assimilate this new information at high school, due to their poor foundation during childhood. On a more personal level, it is likely that the child care students in question perceive themselves as failure, have low self-esteem and have poor interpersonal skills and so miss out on developmental relationships with their peers. Fortunately, for our students, resources of some sort (personal, social, environmental?) prevented them to drop out of high school, which is not uncommon for those with limited language development. It has been reported that 60-80% of students who are considered to have a reading disability in the USA also have other language disorders (Clibbens, 2001). However, it is also possible for a language difficulty to be present without reading/writing problems, although as a student reaches the tertiary level it is less likely that the language difficulties will be independent of learning difficulties in general. For our childcare students a persistent language difficulty will limit their opportunities for personal, career and economic self-sufficiency. Also, the effects of their language difficulty impacts on others, such as their interactions with young children that they will care for upon completing their degree. As such, language development difficulties are a concern for the whole of society in terms of utilizing valuable human resources. However, as the students in question are undertaking a child-care course they are being exposed to knowledge of language development difficulties, and its solutions. During tutorials, and for assignments, the students will be expected to “practice what they preach” and so will learn to encourage parents to enjoy the language learning period of their child’s life. They (our students) may find that learning about solutions: talking in a natural way to a child about what they are doing, seeing or hearing; listening to the child’s sounds and later words; responding so that a child knows one is listening to them; and reading stories from an early age to make interpersonal communication fun, enhances their own ability to use language. Also, the students may find themselves wanting to become good language role models for the children, and so have enhanced motivation to overcome their own limitations. Importantly, it is likely that our students will be aware of the necessity of showing genuine interest in what children have to say, and may initiate ways to extend the children’s vocabulary, and so their own. Conclusion In summary, communication is a dynamic and interactive process, and limited language development can result in an adult learner who is frustrated, unsuccessful, unhappy and unpopular. This is due primarily because language skills cannot be separated from social skills. It is important for people to feel that they belong with a group of their peers, and to do this a person must be able to tell and understand jokes, banter verbally, tease, flirt, and have verbal disagreements amongst other things. When a tertiary student is not able to communicate in this way, they are at risk of social and emotional problems, that impact further then individual. In the case of our 16 child care students; the existence of socio-emotional issues would impact directly on the children with whom they are communicating during and after their course. References Bickerton, D. (1990). Language and species. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kiymazarslan, V. (2001). A discussion of language acquisition theories. [Online] Retrieved 23rd December, 2005 from: http://www.maxpages.com/thena/ladiscussion2 Chomsky, N. (1959). A review of B.F. Skinner’s verbal behavior. Language, 35(1), 26-58. Clibbens, J. (2001). From theory to practice in child language development. [Online] Retrieved 23rd December, 2005 from: http://www.down-syndrome.info/ library/periodicals/dsrp/01/3/101/DSRP-01-3-101-EN-GB.htm Skinner, B. F. (1957) Verbal behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Read More