Age and Its Effects on Second Language Acquisition - Research Paper Example

Age and Its Effects on Second Language Acquisition Introduction Age and learning or second language acquisition go hand in hand. Therefore, age is definitely a defining factor when it comes to second language acquisition. Young children have a known tendency to learn second languages more easily and quickly than adults. This can be contributed by many factors like say flexibility of children or relations with other children during play while adults sometime, most of the time really, keep to themselves especially in new environments or tend to associate with people of the same language due to fear of embarrassing themselves. This thus makes second language acquisition difficult and slow. But a scientific factor as to why children learn second languages easier and quicker than adults is that children’s brains are flexible until they reach their teenage years in a process known as lateralization. Here the brain loses its flexibility by assigning specific roles to each side of the brain making learning hard and slow (VanPatten et al, 2004). This is also true in the learning of subjects as children catch up quickly and memorize unlike adults. This essay is going to review recent research findings related to how age affects the second language acquisition process mostly for English language learners that are new comers into the US. 1. Language Acquisition Process The language acquisition process is process where language is observed, grasped and produced by a child, which is the first language (Clark, 2001). The same process is used in the second language acquisition. The second language acquisition process has steps that it follows to learn. That is the child must learn the word, retain them, recall them and apply them constantly to be perfect (Birdsong, 2006). This steps cannot happen on their own since the child needs to first learn the language and this the child does by following some set of steps. These steps include Imitation, repetition, memorization, drilling and reinforcement. When a child is at this stage reinforcement is very productive and rewarding the child when they make good sentences or the correct words will enhance quick learning process of language acquisition. When this achieved it means that the child can now talk. The acquisition of the second language now comes into play and a theory is that a child’s learning of the first language is an insight to his learning the second language. 1.1. Universal grammar This term was developed by a philosopher Noam Chomsky and it is abbreviated as UG. Chomsky in his theory suggests that human beings in general do not have to be taught language to acquire it but rather they have the innate properties that enable them to learn on their own (Landau, Gleitman, & Landau, 2009). Chomsky asserts that children acquire second language- even the first language- more easily because they already have innate language principles that guide their language acquisitions. In other words, children’s brains and even adults have set of structures in the brain that facilitates language acquisition. This explains the theory of trials, errors and reinforcements in the language learning process by children otherwise they would just go to school and be taught languages and would never learn from home. An example is that a four year old child can accurately mimic and in some instances use words and sentences they have never stumbled upon in their lives. This is because all languages and all human beings have a common structure governing language and this he called the universal grammar. 1.2 Language acquisition device Language acquisition device LAD is like a more explanation of Noam Chomsky’s universal grammar theory. Chomsky asserts that for universal grammar to be functional there has to be a device that can trigger the first or second language acquisition in children. This is what Chomsky calls language acquisition device LAD and he believes that every child has it and every human being. That is the inborn capability to learn any human language because the linguistic structures are predisposed in their brains making learning easier and quicker. Chomsky gives a set of proofs that support the LAD. First Chomsky asserts that children do not learn by imitation alone since they make mistakes that adults do not make like saying ‘I sleeped’ instead of ‘I slept’. Secondly, during language acquisition even SLA children do not mix up their verbs, objects and grammar in the wrong order this is due to the LAD imprinted in their brains. Furthermore, children can easily notice when an adult makes incorrect sentences grammatically deliberately or not and will sometimes correct them. Lastly, Chomsky states that children can construct grammatically correct sentences which do not necessarily make sense further explaining that children cannot have learnt this but constructed them based on their innate grammar structure inside them. Chomsky’s assertions have been greatly criticized by other scholars who state that the ability to learn without necessarily imitating others is not proof enough of an actuality of LAD. But Chomsky’s theory holds water in that scientist have found and identified the brain part responsible for understanding and production (Gervain, & Mehler, 2010). Therefore, children are born with languages in their brains and only need a few factors to set them up. 2. Critical Period Hypothesis As stated above, age and first and second language acquisition SLA go hand in hand. In that the younger a person is the quicker and easier it is to acquire LA and SLA. Where is the line drawn when it comes to age and language acquisition? This is what is termed as the critical period hypothesis, the time frame where language acquisition is naturally connected to age (MacWhinney, 2004). This hypothesis claims that there is a time frame where second language acquisition is easy when the necessary stimulus is given to a child. This stimulus includes the environment and right reinforcements which on the other hand if not well administered could lead to lifelong language impairments (Bialystok, 1997). This period is vital especially at the onset years of a child. This critical period hypothesis is believed to be from childhood to adolescence, specifically from two years to around eighteen years. After thus period language acquisition becomes slow and hard for the adolescent. Although this claim is not unanimously accepted, it holds water in that adults never get to have a near native accent in foreign countries unlike their children who achieve native like accents. The claim explains that it is not because adults have no ability to acquire language but have difficulties because of internal and external factors that hinder them. 2.1Second language acquisition process Second language acquisition process is the process where by a child learns other languages apart for his or her first language which is the native language or the first language. Second language acquisition process occurs at different rates in different children due to biological, environmental and social factors surrounding the child but every child is said to be better at second language acquisition than adults as they learn faster and easily. This they achieve through imitation, positive reinforcements and the social life. Second language acquisition occurs at home through mimicking of parents and siblings occur at classrooms in school where they mimic teachers and in the playgrounds where they mimic their peers (Robinson, 1996). As a philosopher asserted they achieve this ease of second language acquisition due to a device known as LAD and the universal grammar theory. 2.1.1 Phases of second language acquisition There are different phases in the process of second language acquisition. The second language acquisition takes six stages to accomplish before the child can be said to have acquired second language proficiency. The child goes from pre-production, early production, speech emergent, beginning fluency, intermediate fluency to advanced fluency where the child has fully acquired and mastered the language. However, second language is not necessarily a number two language it also refers to learning of three, four or five other languages. Therefore, any second language is any languages that a child may acquire apart from his or her native language. The pre-production stage which occurs 0-6 months is also called the silent stage. The child listens but does not speak and varies with each child. The early production stage begins at 6months -1 year. Here the child speaks short words bust still listen a lot. The child mainly mimics single words. The speech emergent stage occurs at age 1-3 years. The child uses longer sentences and mistakes are minimal. The child speaks frequently but stays in familiar vocabulary. This stage is simultaneous to the beginning of fluency stage. After speech emerges the child is a bit fluent in his sentences. There are no mistakes and if any occurs it is occasional. The intermediate fluency follows from around age 3-5 years. Here the child has acquired the second language and can fully use it with no errors whatsoever. The child can speak about foreign situations and can demonstrate higher order thinking like problem analysis or reviews (Brown, Malmkjær, & Williams, 1996). Finally the child enters the final stage of second language acquisition, the advanced fluency which occurs from 5-7 years. The child is fluent in all contexts and is comfortable discussing issues in the second language. Errors are normal errors that can be made by any person and is fully aware of such mistakes. 2.1.2 External factors for second language acquisition There are many factors that assist in the acquisition of the second language by a child. First is the environment where the child is exposed to. If the child is for example from Africa and comes to the US the child should socialize with Native Americans rather than other foreigners. This will enhance faster learning and near native accent in language. Secondly, use of the technology of communication mediums like TV, radio and magazines (Lacina, 2004). Frequent exposure to American television like movies and film enhance second language acquisition. Lastly, a child can learn the culture of the natives that is the America culture. This creates excitement which enables second language acquisition. Furthermore, culture entails so much about their natives language and more so the accents. 3. Attrition in the Process of Second Language Acquisition Language attrition can be defined as the erosion of the second language. This means that second language learners have been seen to experience second language attrition over a period of time but the reverse has also been observed (Hansen, 1999). Language attrition happens when one language takes dominance over the other because it is being used frequently. Attrition in the process of second language acquisition occurs due to change in the environment changes. For example an exchange student from France learning in America may acquire the second language which is English and easily forget it once he or she returns to France where English is not spoken frequently. Second language attrition also occurs when the instructional program is interfered with. This can be that the child is no longer positively reinforced or classroom teaching is terminated. 3.1 Factors of attrition of L1 and second language acquisition Just as with the case of attrition of second language acquisition can first language face attrition. It has been observed that children who acquire their second language and stay in the same environment always face attrition of the L1 or the first language (Hansen, 1999). An African child in America will acquire English as a second language very easily and since the environment is in America where English is the language spoken and few or no African languages spoken, the child may face attrition of the first language. Another factor in the attrition of the L1 is language mixing and syntactic interference (Montrul, 2005). For example a French child whose second language is English and tends to use more passive voice will interfere with his first language since passive voice is common in English words than in French. Literal translations from second language to first language are another factor that might cause first language attrition. 4. Conclusion Acquisition of second language is the understanding, comprehending and producing words in another language apart from your mother tongue. It is easy to acquire in children than in adults due to lateralization, the process where the brain specializes its roles. More so children learn easily due to the theory of the universal grammar and the LAD. This theories claim that children and every other human being is born with an innate structure that governs language acquisition making second language easier and does not need to be taught but by just learning on their own. There are factors that affect the L2 they include the environment, the child’s personality and social groups. 4.1 Considerations of age and second language acquisition recommendations or best practices for teachers of new comers to the United States New comers to the United States can perform practices which can aid in second language acquisitions. It is known that age and second language acquisition are biologically linked. The first recommendation for teachers would be to start the teaching of second language at a very early age since time frame as confirmed by the LAD and proper stimuli can be very productive unlike adults who face many factors that make leaning difficult (Hall, & Verplaetse, 2000). Another recommendation is the use of positive reinforcements during the teaching of second language by teachers and parents alike. This will boost the child’s morale into learning and will enhance retention and recollection of second language words. Children unlike adults can receive reinforcements in from of praises and rewards which adults cannot get. In fact adults get retribution and laughter. This makes it even harder to learn. The child should also be exposed to things that can better enhance their vocabularies and pronunciations like culture learning. The native’s cultures in this case the American culture is packed with cultural inferences which will explain pronunciations. This will enhance the second language acquisition. It is easy for children to learn and incorporate another culture not so for adults since they have their own culture imbedded in their brains and any culture cannot be tolerated further enhancing difficulty levels in understanding of L2. Finally, the child should be exposed to American material like films, movies, radio programs, magazines, live shows and even social media. This will make sure the child keeps up with the second language acquisition. Adults have their own kind of film that they want to watch and they Amy not be American stuff because they can choose to be only viewing say African content and are not involved in social media as children. References Brown, G., Malmkjær, K., & Williams, J. (Eds.). (1996). Performance and competence in second language acquisition. Cambridge university press. Bialystok, E. (1997). The structure of age: In search of barriers to second language acquisition. Second language research, 13(2), 116-137. Birdsong, D. (2006). Age and second language acquisition and processing: A selective overview. Language Learning, 56(s1), 9-49. Clark, E. V. (2001). 13 Emergent categories in first language acquisition. Language acquisition and conceptual development, 3, 379. Gervain, J., & Mehler, J. (2010). Speech perception and language acquisition in the first year of life. Annual review of psychology, 61, 191-218. Hall, J. K., & Verplaetse, L. S. (Eds.). (2000). Second and foreign language learning through classroom interaction. Routledge. Hansen, L. (Ed.). (1999). Second language attrition in Japanese contexts. Oxford University Press. Lacina, J. (2004). Technology in the classroom: Promoting language acquisitions: Technology and English language learners. Childhood Education, 81(2), 113-115. Landau, B., Gleitman, L. R., & Landau, B. (2009). Language and experience: Evidence from the blind child (Vol. 8). Harvard University Press. MacWhinney, B. (2004). A unified model of language acquisition. Handbook of bilingualism, 49. Montrul, S. (2005). Second language acquisition and first language loss in adult early bilinguals: Exploring some differences and similarities. Second Language Research, 21(3), 199-249. Robinson, P. (1996). Consciousness, rules, and instructed second language acquisition. Lang. VanPatten, B., Williams, J., Rott, S., & Overstreet, M. (Eds.). (2004). Form-meaning connections in second language acquisition. Routledge. Read More