Instructional Strategies for Instructional Designers - Essay Example

Training Manual: Instructional Strategies for Instructional Designers Chapter Concept Maps Strategy Graphic organizers are powerful learning tools. Graphic meta-cognitive techniques are used in improving learning. One of the most important graphic organizers is the concept map. A concept map enables students and teachers to organize their concepts, in addition to determining the association between the concepts (Dempsey, 2004). The map allows students and teachers to work with the propositions and concepts instead of the rote memorization of facts. Description of Concept Maps as an Instructional Strategy Concept maps are generative and evocative. They play a crucial role in evoking prior knowledge, in addition to constructing or generating new knowledge. Concept mapping is mainly used in science classes. A concept map is a web diagram that is designed for sharing and gathering information, and exploring knowledge (Dempsey, 2004). Concept mapping is a strategy that is used in the development of a concept map. The concept map has cells or nodes that comprise of questions, items, concepts and links. These links are labeled in a manner to denote direction. The labeled links outline the association between the nodes, and the arrows show the direction of each of the relationships. Condition of Use Concept Maps in Designing Instruction The material under consideration must be conceptually presented and clear with examples and language that are relatable to the prior knowledge of a learner. Concept maps are useful in meeting in this condition because they facilitate the identification of concepts held by learners. They also assist in the development of sequences of learning tasks. The second condition is that learners need to have relevant prior knowledge (Dempsey, 2004). This condition is necessary in building concept frameworks that present detailed and specific knowledge in all fields. The third concept is that learners need to choose to learn meaningfully. This condition requires the learner to have the motivation to learn by attempting to integrate meaning into prior knowledge. Effectiveness of Concept Maps in Designing Instruction Concept maps instill student participation and interest in their undertaking, particularly in literature and science courses. They also foster the appreciation of the discipline and critical thinking. Learners have the opportunity to grasp concepts that convey meaning to the knowledge they possess (Novak & Cañas, 2006). They can also picture the interaction between the meaning and concept. This helps them to see the powers of a concept map. Concept maps have the ability to externalize the thinking of learners, in addition to showing the connection between concepts and meaningful patterns (Indirect Instruction, 2009). The value of the maps is their ability to help learners make sense of their learning through the extraction of concepts and organization of the concepts. Concept maps are useful learning tools of empowerment, which allow teachers to design their instructional methods and materials. They also facilitate student-teacher negotiation about knowledge and the meaning of the knowledge. Utilization of Concept Maps in Designing Instruction Concept maps are used in designing instructions. The maps are used in developing an understanding of knowledge. They are used in exploring new information and relationships between concepts and knowledge. Concept maps access prior knowledge and gather new information and knowledge (Indirect Instruction, 2009). Concept maps are used in designing processes and structures such as web sites, written documents and multimedia presentations. How to Design the Strategy The first step in designing the concept map is the identification of the topic of concern. The second step requires the teacher to brainstorm on the topic and list all the concepts associated with the topic. During this step, the teacher should also identify the themes that are associated with the topic (Novak & Cañas, 2006). The third step requires the teacher to write down the themes. The fourth step is the connection of the concepts to the themes. The teacher can use organizational patterns such as arrows, branches or groups (Indirect Instruction, 2009). The most important ideas should be placed at the center. This will help in the identification of the association between the concepts. The last step is the review of the organizational pattern in order to correct any mistakes. Chapter 2 Scaffolding Strategy Scaffolding is a teaching strategy that was developed by Lev Vygotsky. The strategy is based on Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory and the concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD). Scaffolding is a useful instructional strategy that provides individualized support based on the ZPD of learners (Mayer, 2008). Scaffolding provides opportunities to improve prior knowledge, in addition to internalizing new information. Description of Scaffolding as an Instructional Strategy As an instructional strategy, scaffolding refers to a number of instructional techniques, which are used in the progressive movement of students towards understanding and independence in their learning process. During scaffolding, teachers provide levels of temporary support that will help students achieve high levels of skill acquisition and comprehension. Teachers remove the supportive strategies as learning progresses (McKenzie, 1999). Teachers gradually shift learning responsibilities to their students. Scaffolding is usually used in bridging learning processes. Condition of Use Scaffolding in Designing Instruction The first condition requires teachers to give students simplified versions of assignments, readings or lessons. The teacher should gradually increase the complexity of these readings, assignments and lessons. This condition is important in the achievement of the goals of a lesson. Teachers can break up the lessons in order to progressively move students towards the comprehension and understanding of concepts. The second condition requires teachers to illustrate or describe problems, concepts or processes using different strategies in order to facilitate understanding (Meyer & Turner, 2002). In this case, the teacher can describe a concept to students using visual aids such as graphic and presentations in order to aid understanding. The third condition requires teachers to give a model of an assignment to students. The teacher has a responsibility of describing the features of the assignment. The model given by the teacher provides concrete examples to students in their process of learning goals. Effectiveness of Scaffolding in Designing Instruction Scaffolding provides students and teachers clear directions. It also reduces student confusion. Teachers anticipate the problems that students are likely to encounter. They develop stepwise instructions that help students to overcome these problems and meet their goals or expectations. Scaffolding clarifies purpose. This means that scaffolding helps students to understand their work and the importance of the work. Scaffolding keeps students on task through the provision of structures (Nichols, Young & Rickelman, 2007). Scaffolding research and lessons provide students with pathways for learning. Scaffolding incorporates assessments and clarifies expectations. Expectations are usually clear from the beginning of the learning activities. Utilization of Scaffolding in Designing Instruction Scaffold instructions are mainly used in problem based learning environments. Problem based learning environments are education environments, which challenge students during learning. Teachers use these instructions to assess activities that students perform independently (Stewart, MacIntyre, Galea & Steel, 2007). They also use these instructions to complete tasks. Teachers use scaffolding to design activities, which offer students opportunities to overcome gaps in skills and knowledge. How to Design the Strategy Before designing the strategy, it is vital for teachers to take their time to evaluate their learning experiences and the relevance of the course to the instructional strategy. The first step is the identification of the major assessments and assignments, and the creation of scaffolds for each. One of the main outcomes of this step is the realization that one of the assignments or assessments is not longer relevant. The second step is the identification of a brief description of the major assignments and assessments. This should include the identification of the necessary skills required for the evaluation of the assessments. The third step is the evaluation of the skills that are required by students to successfully complete the assignments. The fourth step is the determination of the prerequisite skills and their role in helping students master the course. The fifth step is an evaluation of the course and its scope (Stewart, MacIntyre, Galea & Steel, 2007). This is followed by the creation of a curriculum or outline of the assignments. The last step requires the teacher to ensure that all people involved understand the rationale behind the design. Chapter 3 Explaining Examples Strategy This strategy involves teachers spending time in the classroom to demonstrate or explain concepts and themes using examples. The strategy is targeted to the whole classroom. However, the teacher may devote some time to explain examples to individual students (Çeşit, Ece & Kafadar, 2012). The strategy is necessary because of the fact that student resource materials do not provide explanations of concepts. In order for students to understand these concepts, they need demonstrations and explanations using examples. Description of Explaining Examples as an Instructional Strategy Explaining examples is a strategy that is adopted by teachers to facilitate the understanding of concepts and topics. In this case, the teacher allocates resources to demonstrate and explain topics and concepts to small groups, classes or individual students. Most of these explanations are given to students with an aim of deepening their understanding of concepts (Chi, Bassok, Lewis, Reimann & Glaser, 1989). Other explanations are given with an aim of helping students understand generalizations. Teachers are required to select appropriate definitions of concepts and their appropriate examples. Condition of Use Explaining Examples in Designing Instruction One of the main conditions for using this strategy in designing instructions is the requirements that students do not understand the concepts being taught. The second condition requires teachers to analyze the influence of the learning environment on the capabilities of students to understand the concepts. The third condition is the need for the teacher to use illustrations or demonstrations to outline the concepts (Driscoll, 2005). Effectiveness of Explaining Examples in Designing Instruction Explaining examples is effective in showing the cause and effect associations. This is effective in scientific causes. The strategy is effective is showing that actions are governed by laws or rules. They are used to show processes or procedures, in addition to the intent of a process or activity. Additionally, explaining examples is effective in demonstrating the abilities of students to use their decision making skills in order to enhance their understanding (Soash, 2010). Utilization of Explaining Examples in Designing Instruction Explaining examples can be used in three ways in designing instructions. These ways are comprehending concepts, analyzing concepts or topics and demonstrating concepts. These suggest different levels of student understanding and efficiency. Comprehending refers to the ability of students to understand or know the concept or topic under consideration (Yadav, Vinh, Shaver, Meckl & Firebaugh, 2014). Analyzing is the ability of students to examine the concepts carefully and critically. Demonstrating refers to the act of explaining by showing. How to Design the Strategy In designing this instructional strategy, the teacher is required to comprehend the concepts related to the topic. The second step requires the teacher to analyze the influence of the learning environment in comprehending the concepts. The third step is the demonstration of the concepts using visual aids, assessments or assignments (Yadav, Vinh, Shaver, Meckl & Firebaugh, 2014). Chapter 4 Advance Organizers Strategy Advance organizers are strategic approaches towards learning. They can be used to introduce a topic to students with an aim of providing students with an overview. It is also used in the connection of new information to the student’s prior knowledge. Advance organizers are also used in the illustration of the organization of new information or concepts (Ahmed, Gujjar, Bajwa & Janjua, 2012). Advance organizers may be task planners, which orient learners to tasks through the provision of organizational cues. Description of Advance Organizers as an Instructional Strategy Advance organizers are simple background discussions and introductions before the introduction of a new topic or concept. They can also be complex detailed flow diagrams, which picture components of tasks and their organization (University of Pittsburgh.Edu, 2010). Advance organizations can be aided by charts, diagrams or words. They are important cognitive strategies, which help in simplifying complex tasks. Advance organizations are designed as instructional strategies with an aim of facilitating the orientation of new information or sequential organizations (Cutrer, Castro, Roy & Turner, 2011). As instructional strategies, advance organizers facilitate the completion of complex tasks and understanding of new information. They play a role in the improvement of memory, and learning at different levels of encoding, storing and retrieving information. Condition of Use Advance Organizers in Designing Instruction Advance organizers are provided as means of clear teacher instructions. They may also be presented as graphic or visual organizers (Gurlitt, Dummel, Schuster & Nückles, 2012). Advance organizers are relevant to the educational and instructional needs of students. Teachers use advance organizers whenever they are faced with a situation that requires the organization of complex tasks. Effectiveness of Advance Organizers in Designing Instruction Advance organizers have been effectively used in designing instructions. They are used in the facilitation of the comprehension of problems. The first task for teachers is to comprehend the situations that students face. This will help in the solution of problems associated with the lack of knowledge, memory problems and attention problems (Shaw, Nihalani, Mayrath & Robinson, 2012). Advance organizers are also used as teacher’s strategies for environmental support. This means that they can be considered as procedures, which are used by teachers to introduce students to the contents of a lesson (Kovalik & Williams, 2011). Advance organizers also play a crucial role in the facilitation of student organization. In this case, advance organizers are context sensitive processes, which help students to become progressively organized as they solve complex tasks. Utilization of Advance Organizers in Designing Instruction Advance organizers can be used in different forms. They can be used as time line graphic organizers which represent a top-down sequence that show the activities of students (Langan-Fox, Waycott & Albert, 2000). These are used to help students become organized. They can also be used as complex task planners. In case of complex activities, the instructional strategy is used to plan activities at higher levels. How to Design the Strategy The organization of the advance organizer needs to match the organizational requirements of teachers and students. The organizer should capture the organization of content. The advance organizer needs to be concrete. The concreteness of the advance organizer facilitates the orientation of tasks (Psych Central, 2014). Reference Ahmed, I., Gujjar, A., Bajwa, N., & Janjua, S. (2012). A Comparative Study of Effectiveness of Advance Organizer Model and Traditional Method in Teaching of English in Teacher Education Course. Language in India, 12(4), 196-208. Çeşit, C., Ece, A., & Kafadar, H. (2012). Research into problem solving abilities and self-Esteem levels of high school students who have taken Art education and who have not (with the Example of the province-Bolu).International Online Journal Of Educational Sciences. Vol. 4, (3). Page 706-726 Chi, M. T. H., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P. & Glaser, R. (1989). 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Journal of Visual Literacy, 30(2), 40-64. Langan-Fox, J., Waycott, J. L., & Albert, K. (2000). Linear and Graphic Advance Organizers: Properties and Processing. International Journal of Cognitive Ergonomics, 4(1), 19-34 Mayer, R. E. (2008). Learning and instruction. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Merrill. McKenzie, J. (1999). Scaffolding for Success. From Now On The Educational Technology Journal. Vol. 9, (4). Meyer, D. K., & Turner, J. C. (2002). Using Instructional Discourse Analysis to Study the Scaffolding of Student Self-Regulation. Educational Psychologist. Vol. 37, (1), 17-25. Nichols, W., Young, C. A., & Rickelman, R. J. (2007). Improving Middle School Professional Development by Examining Middle School Teachers Application of Literacy Strategies and Instructional Design. Reading Psychology, Vol. 28, (1), 97-130. Novak, J. D, & Cañas, A. J. (2006). The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and How to Construct and Use Them. Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, Pensacola Florida. Psych Central, (2014). Memory and Mnemonic Devices. Retrieved from http://psychcentral.com/lib/memory-and-mnemonic-devices/0004376 Shaw, S., Nihalani, P., Mayrath, M., & Robinson, D. (2012). Graphic organizers or graphic overviews? Presentation order effects with computer-based text. Educational Technology Research & Development, 60(5), 807-820. Soash, K., (2010). ELL: Reasons and benefits for using examples when teaching. Retrieved from http://www.totalesl.com/e_articles_print.php?id=863 Stewart, T. M., MacIntyre, W. R., Galea, V. J., & Steel, C. H. (2007). Enhancing problem-based learning designs with a single e-learning scaffolding tool: Two case studies using challenge FRAP. Interactive Learning Environments. Vol. 15, (1), 77-91. University of Pittsburgh.Edu (2010). Advance organizers. Retrieved from http://www.cidde.pitt.edu/using-advance-organizers Yadav, A., Vinh, M., Shaver, G., Meckl, P., & Firebaugh, S. (2014). Case-based instruction: Improving students conceptual understanding through cases in a mechanical engineering course. Journal of Research In Science Teaching, 51(5), 659-677. Read More