Word Recognition and Decoding Skills, Prior Knowledge - Essay Example

Influence of Word Recognition, Decoding Skills, And Prior Knowledge in EAL Learners Reading Proficiency Table of Contents Introduction 2. Terminology a. Language System b. Semantics c. Lexical Knowledge 3. Word recognition and Decoding Skills 4. Who are EAL Students? 5. Why Should EAL Students Master English? 6. Relationship between Language Comprehension and Word Reading 7. Theoretical Models of English Learning: 8. Differences between the Structure of the English Language and Other Languages 9. Experiential and Contextual knowledge 10. Vocabulary Development 11. Assessment Studies 12. Theory of Simple View of Reading 13. Assessment Studies on the Overall Language Affluence of EAL’s 14. Ways in which we could support EAL children improve their Language skills 15. Role of Reading in Improving Contextual understanding 16. Conclusion Introduction English is the most widely spoken language in the world reaching out and influencing a major chunk of this planets population across geographic, demographic, cultural and philosophical boundaries. The language is taught and learnt by people across the spectrum in a variety of circumstances against a diverse set of contexts. The general trend of English learning can be seen to be demarcated along two broad lines of classification: 1) English language learning for people in non-English speaking societies who intend to continue their residence in their native land. 2) English language learning for people who intend to move into the Anglosphere (The English speaking countries, with English been given state status). The demarcation of these two classifications has led to divergent uses of terminology, vastly differing nomenclature, teaching techniques, learning methodologies and even usage and technology, as a result the differences between these two forms of English language learning have only ossified into a strict division of the two, each one possessing its unique schools of training, qualifications, objectives, teaching methodologies, class composition, student/ teacher demographics and even funding and financing sources(Alvermann & Montero 2003). This paper aims in analyzing three main factors, the problems faced by children who do not have English as mother tongue in learning the language, how their understanding of the language affect their general level of following other subjects, the methods teachers use to educate them and an evaluation of the systems. Terminology: As previously mentioned, English language learning divided into two broad schools of learning has developed distinct and differing terms and nomenclatures. Here we will try and classify and state some of the most commonly used terms in English language learning, especially for students with a non-English speaking background or culture. There are various ways in which English as additional language learning is classified, it is also known as ESOL or English for speakers of other languages, EAL English as an additional language or more commonly EFL, English as a foreign language. The differences in these different terms can be explained by means of exploring the different usages and contexts in which they are applied, specifically in terms of geographic, demographic and functional differences. ELT is a term used keeping the teachers in perspective, it is an acronym for English Language Teaching, however it is also known as TESL, Teaching English as a second language, or as TESOL, Teaching English to speakers of other languages as well as TEFL, teaching English as a foreign language. Some lesser used terms are: EIL, English as an international Language, ESP: English for specific purposes, EAP, English for academic purposes and ELF, English as a lingua franca and ELL, English Language learners (Armbruster, Lehr & Osborn, 2001). The differences in terminologies are based mainly on usage, cultural bias and history, for instance in former British colonies like Australia, Philippines etc the proper term is ESOL, English for speakers of other languages, whereas in countries like US, Canada etc, the more commonly used term is ESL, English as a second language. The term has come under some criticism since the increase in the number of multilingual non-English speakers, who speak multiple languages save for English, thus rendering inaccurate the classification of English as their ‘Second language’. In addition to the above terms, there are a number of acronyms that are used to denote the student rather than the process. For instance, the previous description of an English language learner was LEP, Limited English Proficient, which was later changed to ELL English language learner, which was shortened yet again to simply EL, English Learner (Bouchard & Trabasso, 2003). These differing and varied terminologies are further proof of the difficulties of formulating a uniform, overarching nomenclature to properly define and classify the various components of English language learning, however it is still left up to the particular usage and cultural norm of a particular place as to how the different terminologies will be applied. Language System A language system is a collection of the interrelated patterns of linguistic units, components and elements that compose the properties and structure of a language. There are several sub-systems that interact, interrelate and coordinate with one another to form a complete language system, various components and different elements interact and correlated with one another to form the superstructure of language, such as: Accentual system: This is composed of the various elements and units that help make up the particular accent of that language, for instance, the pitch and tone, the fall and rise of certain language elements, the usage of words, the context and purpose of vocabulary etc. Morphophonemic system: Morphophonology details the interaction of different morphemes (the smallest meaningful units of language) and how they change, what sounds they make when they interact with each other to form words. Syllabicity: Syllables are the building blocks of words, they are the basic organizational units of the sounds of speech that make up words, how they are made up, how they interact with each other and how they impact speech and language is defined as the system of syllabicity. Tense System: The way different tenses are used in language, for instance, the word for tomorrow is the same in Hindi as yesterday, “Kal” so one might use Kal for tomorrow as well as for yesterday. Phonology: It helps us to understand the different sounds of a particular language; this is the system that manages the pronunciation of different words and parts of speech. Phonemic System: A Phoneme is the basic building block of language, it is what is combined together to form words and language and speech, it is the smallest linguistic unit which can bring about or change meaning. For instance in the words “Sit” and “Sip” the meaning of the words was changed by the addition and exchange of the Phoneme ‘T’ and ‘P’ (Bukowiecki, 2007). Semantics Semantics can simply be defined as the study of meaning, its scope of study lies in the mechanism and structure with which meaningful units of language interact and correlate with one another to form meaning and structure. It is concerned with the study of the relationship between what are called signifiers, such as words, signs, symbols and phrases and what they denote and represent. Semantics as a whole has been classified into several branches of study, such as: Linguistic semantics which focuses solely on the meaning of human expression through verbal language, there are other branches of semantics which deal with several different forms of meaning of language and expression such as programming languages semantics, logic and semiotics (Chard, Vaughn & Tyler 2002). Semantics is used to signify problems, not only in linguistics, but in general life of understanding and meaning, of difficulties arising from selection, context and connotations. Semantics as a field of study has been around since a long time and has always concerned itself with understanding the interpretation of meanings and signs in the light of different usages, circumstances and contexts. Taken in this perspective, every single vehicle of meaning and communication can be taken as subject matter for semantics, from literary works to simple non-verbal body language, sounds and music, facial expressions, kinesics, proxemics, body language etc all fall under the purview of semantic investigation all down to the smallest of things like paragraph structure and punctuation bare semantic significance (Bouchard & Trabasso 2003). It is a cross-disciplinary subject with intersecting interests in a wide variety of fields such as syntax, lexicology, etymology etc. the study of meaning, of semantics of a language is thus complex and vast, owing its importance to the understanding of meaning and communication itself. Lexical Knowledge Lexical knowledge refers to the meaning and knowledge that is derived from the lexical or vocabulary base of a language. To understand a particular language it is vitally important to understand the lexicon of that very language, to understand the organization of the language and the meaning inherent in it. Lexical knowledge involves the examination of the structure of words and other formative elements of the language. It tries to understand how morphemes are combined to form sounds and meaning in words, with the study of grammar and punctuation, with how prefixes, suffixes etc are aligned and structure the language in a particular way. This then leads to lexical interpretation, the investigation of how meaning is found in the composition of word parts how that information is represented and interconnected (Alvermann & Montero 2003) Word recognition and Decoding Skills Word Recognition can be defined as the ability of a reader to correctly identify a word and its spelling with little effort and maximum ease. It is focused mainly on the reader’s ability to understand and recognize words and hence is also known as isolated word recognition, it depends solely on the relationship between the reader and the word and the ability to recognize without any context. Word recognition is considered by the literary information and communication system as the main component of fluent reading and can be improved by frequent practice with lists, flash cards etc. Recent scientific studies have shown that our recognition of a word depends on the shape of the letters within the word, however we also recognize the word from the shape of the word itself, it is referred to by the psychologists as the bouma shape. There have been several theories put forwards regarding the mechanisms with which words are recognized either in the context of the shape of their letters or in isolation and the speed and accuracy with which they are recognized. Additionally eye movements and the relationship between letters is also one method of recognition of words and shapes (Armbruster, Lehr & Osborn 2001). Who are EAL Students? To put in simple words we can say EAL students are those who learn English as an additional Language. They are the students whose houses speak a different language. They are taught several languages together with English like their mother tongue, Latin, French or any other cultural or religion oriented language. Though they are introduced to several languages from a very young age, their medium of learning other subjects like science, history etc, is usually English. But, it can change according to their parent’s choice. Why Should EAL Students Master English? The motivations by EALs for learning the English language are manifold, from career based incentives to academic requirements to even governmental socio-political initiatives aimed at increasing the employment potential and talent pool of a particular population. This has led in turn to the increase in demand for talented and proficient English teachers with a diverse language portfolio. This has become a necessity since the teacher must be sufficiently fluent in the languages, English as well as the student’s in order to efficiently and effectively aid the student in learning the English Language. Relationship between Language Comprehension and Word Reading Researchers surmise that gaining sufficient word recognition early on is vital to gaining lifelong reading skills and with different kinds of exercises those skills can be developed, for example the use of flash cards, or the use of rhythmic patterns as in poetry can also help improve word recognition. Word recognition is based off of immediate perception, of knowing and understanding what a grouping of letters represents, it is a process that is highly visual and instinctual, while word analysis is highly analytical and cognitive. Speed is also a great factor in word recognition, words that are able to be better recognized are read faster than words that aren’t, this puts into doubt the use of word recognition as an efficient tool for measuring reading skill and comprehension as it depends merely on understanding what the word is and not what it means or any other cognitive or analytical issues associated with word reading. The value of word recognition is readily obvious due to the issues that non- English speakers face with reading comprehension. Theoretical Models of English Learning: There have been several models of simplified English that have been developed by proponents of linguistics for the purpose of demystifying the learning of English as a language some of them are as follows: 1) Basic English: Basic English was created by linguist Charles Kay Ogden as an international auxiliary language and as a teaching aid (Bouchard & Trabasso 2003). At its core Basic English is a no frills, basic subset of the regular English, it debuted in Ogden’s publication “Basic English: A General introduction with rules and grammar”. This system of English learning gained in popularity after the second world war as a means of spreading the basic understanding of global communication as a means to world peace, various non- English countries were in flux and the Anglosphere had to regularly interact with them, in that scenario the BASIC system came in very handy to smooth out the transition and to ensure communication lines stayed open. 2) Basic Global English: Global English is another system of cross-continental English that recognizes the various non-native variants of the English language as just as good as original English. The concept of basic global English includes fundamental ideas that in part also lie behind Basic English. It is a system of language that is: Fast start for learners of English Reduced but still necessary and natural English English for international contexts Basic global English is meant to be culture-free and truly international and not bound to any particular country or sphere. 3) Globish: Globish was developed by Jean-Paul Nerriere and uses a subset of true English grammar along with a set of 1500 English words; it is a highly contextual language utilizing the non-native context to the English language. Globish is presented as a natural language as opposed to one artificially constructed or codified, it works on the premise that good globish is just as accurate as correct English Differences between the Structure of the English Language and Other Languages There are a number of differences in the structure of the English language as compared to other languages, for a quick look into these differences let us do a few comparisons using English and one or two native languages. Japanese text is traditionally written in columns from top to bottom. Japanese writing uses three main scripts Kanji, Hiragana and Katakana instead of one single script. There are significant differences in the phonology, sentence formation and verb, noun usage in Grammar. Similarly, Urdu, a language studied by several students in the UK is written from right to left instead of left to right like traditional English. The sound of the language is quite different giving maximum stress to each word unlike English which can be spokes with very light stress to certain syllables. The usage of silent words for example H in honor is a common occurrence in English while the concept is quite unique to the Japanese and Urdu readers. Experiential and Contextual knowledge It is quite evident that language skills develop only if you practice them constantly. EAL students often speak a different language in their home and with most of the community people they mingle. They lack the contextual knowledge about the language because, the modern day teaching system stresses on improving the academic necessities suitable for the professional life, rather than teach the history, background and fabulousness of the language. Thus EAL students lack both experiential and contextual knowledge of English. Their expertise in the language in limited to what is printed in the text books. Very few have the habit of reading English books as several electronic items take up their time. Further, their parents encourage them to read the books printed on whatever language their mother tongue is to give them a cultural grip. Vocabulary Development The above mentioned scenario limits their vocabulary knowledge severely. However, these students develop their vocabulary consistently faster than the L1 children when they enter the university. While the L1 students show interest in the technical details of the subject, the EALs double their effort to understand certain key terms which will enable them learn the technology and technicality easily. Several studies have supported the fact that the EAL’s chance to increase their fundamental vocabulary skills is during their university times rather than the school days. Hence, studies on vocabulary often show EAL students lacking far behind the L1s in the schools, sometimes nearly to that of a year’s level. Assessment Studies Children who migrate to the Anglosphere areas at a younger age pick up the language much easily similar to the English speaking children. Lesaux et al (2008) proved the phonological and word decoding skills of EAL children and the L1 children in this age are the same. Though, there is apparent dearth of research on the area amongst elder children, it is usually noted children above fourteen also pick up easily. Hutchinson et al. (2003) proved there is no gender, or verbal level difference between the L1 and EAL students in this age group. However, he agreed, there are age related differences. Comparing various minorities like the Hollanders, the Dutch speaking people and the Spanish children showed the EAL children showed excellent language skills appropriate for their age. The Standford diagnostic reading test (SDRT) conducted by Lesaux, Lipka & Siegel (2007) on EAL children and L1 students on Canada show there is no significant different between both the categories in the elementary school level. So what seems to be the actual problem if the language skills of EAL’s and the L1s are exactly on the same level? Theory of Simple View of Reading Reading improves vocabulary, writing skills and collaborative conversations. The theory of ‘Simple View of Reading’ suggests the two over-arching components of reading are word recognition and spoken language comprehension. It sates a person cannot be said to be an expert in the language unless they are able to understand, comprehend, read, write and have rich vocabulary skills in the language. Most of the EAL students who generally have good overall ratings fall behind in particular areas like word decoding or comprehension skills. Reading text enables the students to gain both these skills. The theory states there are three different types of learning difficulties in the children. Children with very good language comprehension skills might have word recognition skills. The scenario can be the exact opposite. The understanding of work and text pertaining to its context might be limited in students who give high emphasis to memorizing. Only children with both good word recognition and language comprehension skills can be considered as affluent in the language. Being poor in either of these attributes will weaken the child’s knowledge to correlate the overall meaning of the passage or text learned. The figure given below illustrates how the being good at one feature and poor at another affects the overall language understanding ability to in a graphical format. Assessment Studies on the Overall Language Affluence of EAL’s It is proven that EAL children with limited exposure to English do have specific difficulties associated with vocabulary and comprehension even if they are educated in the Anglosphere for nearly five years. This problem is prevalent mostly among the students who migrate to Britain or other Anglosphere countries after the age of seven to ten. Children with poor comprehension skills lack attentive listening, have low vocabulary and start dwindling their language capacities by the time they reach middle school (Nation & Snowling, 2004). The vocabulary developed in the first grade develops only 30% further in the eleventh grade. Hence, it is important for the overall language development skills (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1997). EAL children with same level of memory as L1 children tend to have lower receptive and poor communication skills when it comes to expressing their thoughts because of their limited vocabulary skills. This hinders their social development. This is known as added L2 disadvantage. Hutchinson et.al (2003) noted that EAL children perform nearly two years below the L1 children of the same age studying in their class in vocabulary and comprehension skills. However, this problem is highly prevalent among students who come from poor socioeconomic backgrounds. Rich households with highly educated parents do not face any problem with the vocabulary of their children as they frequently interact in English. Ways in which we could support EAL children improve their Language skills The teachers dealing with EAL children should concentrate on teaching based on Grapheme-phoneme correspondence. Parents or the care takers of the EAL children are advised to equip them well with various pre-learning phonic books in the house whenever possible. They children should be encouraged to hear as many different words as possible and speak them back. Several schools with considerable number of EAL students have come forward to set up specialized language labs for this reason. The teachers keep themselves updated on all the latest research in the field. Teachers dealing with 5 to 7 year old EAL children should first concentrate on oral language development with the help of these language labs. Only teachers can identify where each child lacks by giving personal attention to the reading, writing and comprehension skills of the every member in their class. Once they identify whether the child is weak in language comprehension, word recognition or understanding its meaning by decoding it, measures should be taken to rectify it accordingly. Language comprehension can be improved by making the child concentrate on reading simple passages and discussing about its content. Fictions, non-fiction both are shown to the children and they are encouraged to discuss their understanding of the character with the teacher. When the child tells the story content from its perspective, the teachers gets to know about its decoding skills as well as comprehension capacity. High quality phonic sessions combined with such conversations should be provided to improve the language skills. When it comes to word decoding and recognition, the teachers can use simple vocabulary and writing techniques. The children will be asked to select a set of words they feel hard in a text and jot them down. Words with similar meaning to that specific word will be listed and explained to them. The child understands the contextual meaning of the words and the exact way it can be used in several different places through this exercise. Dictionary usage encouragement and making the children learn three to five new words daily with right pronunciation will help in improving the word recognition and talking abilities of the EAL students. Role of Reading in Improving Contextual Understanding Inculcating the habit of reading is the key requirement in making the EAL students gain mastery in the language. Reading gives the child freedom to understand the language it its own level. A child might not understand several words in a passage. But, it could decipher the overall meaning of the passage easily. The exercises mentioned above will give the child an opportunity to understand what went amiss. It increases the richness of the language learned and the overall gain from the exercise. Such one-to-one field based activities related to reading should be made compulsory to the EAL children from a very young age to help them gain a better language control. Both parents and the teachers have equal responsibility in doing so. Conclusion It is well evident that there are certain difficulties for students having English as their second language in mastering the language. However, this problem can be dealt easily with the teacher’s co-operation. Research shows the well proven methods and sufficiently trained teachers to handle this issue are present in the education system. Both the US and the UK have considerable number of EAL students sometimes outnumbering the L1s in every classroom. Hence, the schools started to build the required infrastructure necessary to equip the students with basic language skills decades ago. Constant research in the area identifies the various improvements and limitations in improving the language skills of the EAL children. As per our research, creating good reading habits for the children is the key to develop their language skills. Both oratory books and textual readings should be introduced to them from a very young age to hone their language skills with ease. References: 1. Alvermann, D. E. & Montero, M. K. (2003). Literacy and Reading. In Encyclopedia of Education (Vol. 4, pp. 1513-1518). New York: Macmillan. 2. Armbruster, B. B., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J. (2001). Put Reading First: The research building blocks for teaching children to read: Kindergarten through grade 3. Washington, DC: CIERA. 3. Bouchard, E., & Trabasso, T. (2003). Comprehension. In Encyclopedia of Education (Vol. 6, pp. 1977-1985.). New York: Macmillan. 4. Bukowiecki, E. M. (2007). Teaching children how to read. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 43, 58-65. 5. Chard, D. J., Vaughn, S., & Tyler, B. (2002). ‘A synthesis of research on effective interventions for building reading fluency with elementary students with learning disabilities’. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 386-406. 6. Cunningham, A.E. & Stanovich, K.E. (1997) ‘Early reading acquisition and its relation to reading experience 10 years later.’ Developmental Psychology, 33, 934-945. 7. Hutchinson, J.M., Whiteley, H.E., Smith, C.D., & Connors, L. (2003) ‘The developmental progression of comprehension-related skills in children learning EAL’ Journal of Research in Reading, 26 (1), 19-32. 8. Lesaux, N.K., Geva, E., Koda, K., Siegel, L.S. & Shanahan, T. (2008) Development of literacy in second-language learners. New York: Routledge, 27-59. 9. Lesaux, N.K., Lipka, O. & Siegel, L.S. (2006) ‘The development of reading in children who speak English as a second language.’ Developmental Psychology, 39 (6), 1005-1019. 10. Nation, K. & Snowling, M.J. (2004) ‘Beyond phonological skills: broader language skills contribute to the development of reading.’ Journal of Research in Reading, 27 (4), 342-356. Read More