Brain-Based Learning Theory Strategies for ADHD - Research Paper Example

Brain-Based Learning Theory Strategies for ADHD By Introduction A study of data collected from US national health household surveys from 2004-2006, demonstrated that 14% of children between the ages of 6 and 17 suffered from Attention Hyper-activity Disorder (ADHD) (Pastor & Reuben, 2008). Globally, ADHD ranges from between 4% and 12% among children between the ages of 6 and 12 (Brown, Freeman, Perrin, et al., 2001). ADHD has been associated with learning disabilities and emotional disorders suggesting that children suffering from ADHD have difficulties adjusting in social and academic environments (Brown, et al., 2001). It has therefore been suggested that ADHD can best be understood when looked at as a “neurobehavioral disability” (Brook & Boaz, 2005, p. 187). Thus, researchers have increasingly looked to neuroscience as a means of understanding and predicting the cognitive and emotional functions of children with ADHD (Nigg & Casey, 2005). Brain-based learning theorists suggests that understanding how the brain functions can produce effective strategies for teaching children with a number of learning disabilities (Geake, 2009). These theories are carried over to children and adults with ADHD where neuroscientists argue that ADHD is characterized by a deficit in completing tasks that primarily “relied on anterior brain regions (alerting and executive control)” (Swanson, Reschly, Fine, Kotkin, Wigal, & Simpson, p. 72). Since ADHD has been described as a brain-based disorder, a number of brain-based learning theories have been suggested and prescribed to educational interventions for learners with ADHD (Curatolo, Paloscia, D’Agati, Moavero, Pasini, 2009). Given the prevalence of ADHD and its link to learning disabilities and developments in neuroscience in relation to brain-based learning theories, research on its effectiveness as an educational intervention tool is necessary for guiding further research and teaching strategies. This research study conducts a critical analysis of brain-based theory strategies for ADHD. This research study is divided into three parts. The first part of this paper provides an overview of ADHD from the perspective of neuroscience. The second part of this paper analyzes brain-based theories of learning and the final part of this research analyzes brain-based learning theory strategies for ADHD. ADHD as a Brain-Based Disorder ADHD is often associated with “age-inappropriate and maladaptive levels of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity” (Vaidya, 2013, p. 421). Thus individuals with ADHD often exhibit a propensity for making “careless mistakes”, are unable to concentrate, often restless and impulsive (Vaidya, 2013, p. 421). These symptoms are also linked to mood and sleep disorders and behavioral problems which also negatively impact learning abilities (Vaidya, 2013). Since children with ADHD typically underperform in tasks that rely on executive functions, it has been perceived by neuroscientists as a brain-based disorder (Bailey, 2013). In addition, ADHD has been associated with brain functioning that influences memory, learning and “speed of information processing” (Tannock, 2007, p. 1). Studies have demonstrated that there is a link between brain functioning and ADHD therefore confirming the suggestion that ADHD is a brain-based disorder. For example, Williams, Hermens, Thein, Clark, et al., 2010) conducted a clinical trial comparing cognitive assessment outcomes for 175 children with ADHD and 175 children without the disorder in Sydney, Australia. The study was conducted by having the two groups participate in a cognitive assessment test. The results demonstrated that children in the ADHD experimental group showed cognitive deficits that corresponded with “brain-function and body-arousal measures” (Williams, et al., 2010, p. 118). The brain-based consequences of ADHD carries over to both developmental and psychological processes. For example, as a result of deficits in executive functioning, individuals with ADHD have difficulties controlling their impulses and activities and maintaining attention. In summary, ADHD is a “neurobehavioral disorder characterized by differences in brain structure and function” with implications for “behavior, thoughts and emotions” (Rief, 2005, p. 4). The literature therefore establishes that ADHD takes place in the brain and influences how an individual with ADHD learns, thinks, feels, processes information and relates to his or her outside world. Given the persistent conceptualization of ADHD as a brain-based disorder, it makes sense that theories of brain-based learning are considered for educational interventions among learners with ADHD. Before analyzing the effectiveness of brain-based learning theory strategies for ADHD learners it is necessary to understand what brain-based learning theories are. Brain-Based Learning Theories Brain-based learning theories focus on the application of brain theories and brain functioning to helping learners achieve optimal learning outcomes (Call, 2010). Brain-based learning theories link learning to the functions and structures of the human brain (Sylvan & Christodoulou, 2010). In this regard, a number of brain-based learning theories have been identified as effective methods of teaching individuals with brain-based disorders. For educators, the task is to understand the potentials of the brain, as opposed to learning and applying the complex “anatomical intricacies of brain functioning” (Caine & Caine, 1990, p. 66). Caine and Caine (1990) identified 10 theoretical approaches to brain-based learning based on 10 theories of the brain. The first of these theories is that the brain is a “parallel processor” in that it brings together emotions, imagination and thoughts (Caine & Caine, 1990, p. 66). Thus, health, culture, and social factors interact in the brain to absorb and interpret knowledge. Educators should therefore focus on individual learners in constructing teaching methodologies (Caine & Caine, 1990). Secondly, it is theorized that “learning engages the entire physiology” (Caine & Caine, 1990, p. 66). Therefore teaching should always take account of health and stress management. Thirdly, “the search for meaning is innate” in that while individuals are always curious and knowledge seekers, they tend to rely on the familiar (Caine & Caine, 1990, p. 67). Thus, teaching should involve both “familiarity and stability” but at the same time provide stimulation for new knowledge and satisfy curiosity (Caine & Caine, 1990, p. 67). Fourthly, the brain always looks for meaning and as such, teaching methodologies should always make allowances for learners to identify meaningful themes otherwise, the brain has a tendency to discard what it perceives as meaningless information (Caine & Caine, 1990). Fifthly, learning is largely influenced by emotions and in this regard, self-esteem, personal prejudices, acceptance and social adjustments all influence learners ability to absorb information. Therefore, teaching methodologies should always ensure that the learning environment is respectful and supportive. Sixthly, the brain is divided into the left and the right sides. In healthy individuals, both sides function together to form whole learning patterns. In individuals with learning disabilities, one side of the brain is stronger than the other. Teaching methodologies should therefore focus on heightening the use of knowledge retention in that side of the brain that functions better than the other side of the brain to ensure whole learning patterns (Caine & Caine, 1990). The seventh theory of brain-based learning enunciated by Caine and Caine (1990) assumes that the brain absorbs both that which is directly observed and that which is beyond the focal point of observation. Therefore educators should seek to minimize distractions in the learning environment. The eight theory of brain-based learning is that “learning involves both conscious and unconscious processes” and as such, educators should always be aware that learners may require personalized learning methodologies (Caine & Caine, 1990, p. 68). The ninth brain-based learning theory identified by Caine and Caine (1990) assumes that the brain has some automatic memory functioning. For example, one can recall what one had for lunch without having to think about it carefully. Other factual matters require organization and thought for retention. Educators can develop techniques for improving learning memory by personalizing the facts and figures that form a part of the lesson. Finally, Caine and Caine (1990) argue that, “the brain understands and remembers best when facts and skills are embedded in natural spatial memory” (p. 69). For example, language is acquired through “social interaction” which transfer meaning, thus educators can improve learning by introducing practical lessons in which students learning by experiencing and engaging in activities (Caine & Caine, 1990, p. 69). Caine and Caine (1995) introduced their theory of brain-based learning to Dry Creek Elementary school in Rio Linda, California where school had dismal results in standardized testing and a high attrition rate. The study program included three approaches to brain-based learning: the introduction of a “challenging, but nonthreatening environment”, practical exercises combined with in-classroom lessons and socializing the learning process (Caine & Caine, 1995, p. 46). Three years after introducing the brain-based learning theory to Dry Creek, promising changes have been observed. Classrooms have been restructured to appear more relaxing, parents interact with teachers more regularly, students have closer bonds and students and teachers appear to be more engaged (Caine & Caine, 1995). Weiss (2000) demonstrates how a theory of brain-based learning can be applied to learners with ADHD. In this regard, Weiss (2000) argues that the “thalamus” which sits at the brain’s center, “plays an especially important role in attention” (p. 25). The Thalamus: …is the relay center between our sense organs and the cortex…This process holds the important information within our attentional and short-term memory systems by ignoring the less important information, and thus seems to create the visual awareness we experience (p. 25). This center is regulated by external influences. For example, when an individual’s energy levels are low, retention is also low. In other words, the thalamus is exposed to high and lows. Educators will achieve greater output when they are able to recognize highs for each student and respond to it effectively (Weiss, 2000). Brain-based theories of learning can therefore be described as especially learner-centered in that educators must focus on the learner’s brain as evidenced by learning preferences, social and cultural factors and learning abilities. Alferink and Farmer-Dougan (2010) identified four curricula based on brain-based learning theories. One curriculum was the Right vs Left Brain approach. According to the right vs. left theory of brain-based learning, the left side of the brain focuses on language and logic and the right side of the brain is more concerned with intuition and creativity (Alferink & Farmer-Dougan, 2010, p. 44). In curricula based on this theory of brain-based learning, educators identify which side of the brain is more dominant among students and teach to that side of the brain (Alferink & Farmer-Dougan, 2010). Thus, brain-based learning theory not only emphasizes a learner-centered approach to learning, but also teaching to the student’s strengths. However, Alferink and Farmer-Dougan (2010) have criticized brain-based learning theory arguing that students need to hone their weaknesses and therefore teaching to a student’s strengths ensures that their weaknesses are further weakened. Alferink and Farmer-Dougan (2010) also argue that the learner-centered approach to teaching also ensures that the student is unable to develop his or her whole brain capabilities and that all children need to develop both sides of the brain to become fully functional and educated. The main question however, is whether or not brain-based theories of learning are compatible with the goals and objectives for teaching learners with ADHD. Brain-Based Learning Theory Strategies and Learners with ADHD ADHD is linked to poor academic performance including below standard reading and math and repeating school years (Loe & Feldman, 2007). ADHD is also linked to behavioral problems in school which results in excessive use of school resources, increased detention, suspensions, expulsions and attrition rates. Although medication can and has improved behavior and academic performance, it has not improved outcomes for ADHD learners on standardized testing (Loe & Feldman, 2007). Therefore traditional learning and teaching methods have not fully responded to the needs of learners with ADHD. It is therefore necessary to study and analyze whether or not alternative theories of learning can be more responsive to the needs of ADHD learners. This part of the paper analyses whether or not brain-based learning theory can meet the challenge. One brain-based learning theory strategy applied to young learners with ADHD is activity based. This strategy employs the use of movements and action during lessons and in between lessons (Mulrine, Prater & Jenkins, 2008). This strategy which arises out of brain-based learning theory that while the brain retains that which is directly observed, other background distractions can intervene. When added to the fact that ADHD are known for their inability to concentrate and the fact that they are more easily distracted than others without ADHD, the activity based learning strategy makes sense. As Mulrine, et al., (2008) argue: Establishing a classroom environment that encourages beneficial movement throughout the school day – during content lessons, transitions, and via specialized games for recess and indoor rainy day activities – can improve results for students with ADHD, help reduce problematic classroom behavior, and better focus students’ attention on content instruction (p. 16). The effectiveness of the activity-based classroom might be called into question when one considers Weiss’s (2000) contention that the thalamus fluctuates relative to the individual’s energy levels. In other words, when energy levels are high, the center of the brain retains information and processes it at a much higher level (Weiss, 2000). It can therefore be argued that if students with ADHD are subjected to too much exercise and movement, their energy levels may decrease and as a result, their ability to retain information will also decrease. In this regard, educators relying on the activity-based educational tool will have to know when and where to establish boundaries for activities in the classroom and in between lessons. Becktold (2001) suggests a more workable solution to the activity-based approach to learning based on brain-based learning theory. According to Becktold (2001) it might be more appropriate to have students with ADHD conduct “cross-lateral activities which help to engage both sides of the brain” (p. 95). For example, if a student become frustrated with a task, have the student pat himself or herself on the back with the opposing hand or allow for activities that involve “swimming in the air” or “writing words or numbers in the air” (Becktold, 2001, p. 95). These kinds of activities are not merely exercises, but also brain stimulating activities that do not tire the student out and also ensures that students remain seated and the classroom does not become an area of chaos and disorganization. Another strategy recommended by Becktold (2001) is the use of music at appropriate levels in the classroom or as a part of the lesson. Music can be particularly calming and can arouse the attention of the student who is either tired or uninterested (Becktold, 2001). Thus music can actually gain the attention of the student with ADHD and at the same time can act as a safeguard against distraction and restlessness. Becktold (2001) also argues that brain-based learning theories emphasize the importance of student-centered learning which permits students to choose their own learning styles. While this theory has significant merit and is based on the perception that a student who is taught in according with his or her learning preferences is more likely to retain and understand information, students with ADHD will not always make the appropriate choices (Becktold, 2001). It is therefore up to educators to identify the student’s learning style and to work with the student in identifying and adapting to it. Otherwise, when students are left with the task of identifying their own learning preferences and styles, this may only delay the learning process and create further obstacles to the student’s learning acumen and academic achievement. Tonnack (2007) makes an important argument for the use of brain-based theory strategies for students with ADHD. As Tonnack (2007) argues, current and traditional learning methods are wholly inadequate for learners with ADHD. Traditional and current learning strategies for ADHD learners typically focus on “reducing disruptive behavior” and “increasing task engagement” (p. 7). These strategies are important, but they are not enough to ensure that learners with ADHD improve in terms of learning. What is required is a strategy that involves reducing “the cognitive load of academic tasks and avoid overloading working memory” and supporting and improving executive “function through modified instruction” (Tonnack, 2007, p. 2). As previously discussed, Caine and Caine’s (1990) ten theories of brain-based learning ensure a measured approach to learning that will ensure that students are not overloaded. This is accomplished through the task of providing an environment in which learning is natural, but at the same time challenging. This approach calls for a more balanced approach to learning rather than complete overload. Modified instruction will also be accomplished through the learner-centered approach advocated by brain-based theorists and in particular Caine and Caine (1990; 1995). Tonnack (2007) also argues that one of the main benefits of the modified instruction strategy is that it can be applied to the whole classroom inclusively. This is particularly important because inclusive teaching is especially beneficial to learners with ADHD. Inclusive teaching is a strategy in which, students are fully “integrated to the fullest extent possible in a general education classroom” (Gaines & Curry, 2011, p. 47). Rather than removing the child from the classroom in order to obtain support, support is taken to the child in the classroom (Gains & Curry, 2011). Inclusive learning is based on the perception that parents and teachers both share responsibility for ensuring that children fit into social groups. Removing children from a classroom based on their learning disabilities is counterproductive to this responsibility. It not only highlights the child’s disability which might further complicate the learning disability, but it can also create further stigmatization. Teachers in particular can remedy these shortfalls by integrating the child with special needs into the mainstream classroom for the benefit of all students. All students benefit because they are taught through inclusivity that society is replete with diversity and there is space for everyone (Graham, 2010). As theories of brain-based learning inform, each brain is different and functions differently. Therefore, there is no single model of learning that can be established for a whole classroom. The prudent thing to do is to identify each child’s particular learning style and preference and to implement it to the learner’s specifications. In this regard, brain-based learning theory strategies are compatible with inclusive learning which is not only suitable for, but also recommended for students with ADHD and students with learning disabilities or special needs in general. Inclusivity is also suitable and recommended for all students as it will not only help ADHD and learners with disabilities learn more effectively, but it will help students who are not special needs learners, reach their full potential. Gould and Vaughn (2000) point out that requiring teachers to individualize learning can overwhelm teachers with the result that they will simply opt for the most tenable instruction for the group as a whole. This inevitably means that students with ADHD and other special needs will lag behind. However, the brain-based learning theory strategies are designed to overcome these difficulties by providing for a more flexible and relaxed approach to teaching. Gould and Vaughn (2000) recommend that in preparing for an inclusive classroom lesson teachers construct a planning pyramid which identified what the teacher wants the students to learn and what portion of the student population will learn and how and what all of the students will learn. In planning the delivery of the lesson, teachers should plan who they will have the more gifted students learn and share without creating an air of superiority. In addition, in planning for the all-inclusive classroom, the teacher will ensure that the slower students are engaged and their interests are incorporated into the lesson so as to narrow the gap between those who are faster learners and those who are slower learners (Gould & Vaughn, 2000). In this regard, the brain-based learning theory strategy is not only inclusive, but also manages to be learner centered. The inclusive and learner-centered approach recognizes the functioning and structures of the brain and reaches out to learners with ADHD in a way that does not differentiate them from the mainstream student population and therefore reduces some of the emotional and stressful situations that interfere with the brain’s ability to absorb, retain and process information. Therefore, brain-based learning theory strategies are especially compatible with the needs and learning barriers for students with ADHD. In recent years there has been a global movement toward inclusive education. This movement which is prominent in the US and the EU and promoted by the United Nations indicates that it is a natural human right that all children have access to education together and that segregation has the appearance of denial of that fundamental human right. The notion of inclusivity promotes both tolerance and acceptance of “diversity and equity” (Winter & O’Raw, 2010, p. 9). There is aggregate agreement on this aspect of inclusive learning. The problem arises in connection with how this can be accomplished in a classroom setting where students have various degrees of learning abilities. There are concerns that tailoring the classroom instruction to include all students may hold some students back in that special needs students could become more confused or that students who do not have special needs will be held back when lessons are tailored to the special needs of students with learning disabilities (Winter & O’Raw, 2010). Brain-based learning theory strategies are designed to overcome the perceived difficulties of inclusive learning. As previously discussed, brain-based learning theory strategies encourages educators to take account of all students’ learning preferences and does not contemplate that any student will be left out. Therefore, the inclusive, learner-centered approach of brain-based learning theory strategy forces a departure from the one-size-fits-all strategy that has hampered traditional learning strategies. In this regard, the inclusive and learner-centered strategies contemplated by brain-based learning theory are wholly compatible with learning strategies for leaners with ADHD. Conclusion ADHD is defined as a brain-based disorder. This disorder is characterized by a number of brain functions that impact the ability to learn efficiently. Of particular importance is the deficit in executive functioning, memory and attention. These deficits are exacerbated by impulsivity and restlessness. Therefore learners with ADHD are especially vulnerable to learning disabilities and behavioral problems that further impede academic and social achievement. Traditional teaching methodologies have been particularly counterproductive to helping students with ADHD achieve because they tend to isolate and alienate the student from mainstream classroom and further highlight the learner’s differences. This is particularly disruptive to the learner’s ability to learn as it creates a feeling of inferiority. Inclusivity and learner-centered approaches to learning have been promoted as an effective method of removing the feeling of abnormality among learners with ADHD and as a means of promoting feelings of belonging and thus improving the learning ability of students with ADHD. There have been concerns however, over educators’ ability to implement inclusive and learner-centered approaches to classroom instructions that are effective for all students. Brain-based learning theories however have identified strategies for making the classroom more inclusive and for focusing on learner-centered approaches. 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