Critical Analysis of Historical Science, DNA - Essay Example

Running head: Critical analysis of historical science (DNA) College Introduction A good number of scientists and academic professionals are in agreement that the blueprint for human life and existence lies in the deoxyribonucleic acid, which is termed basically DNA (Williams, B. et al., n.d). The majority of people suppose that the history of humanity lies exclusively in the past and current evolutionary events. Nevertheless, scientists aver that a closer assessment of man’s genetic structure presents more information concerning his evolution. DNA which is located in the nucleus of every cell in the human’s body gives man his distinctive characteristics, which consequently give details of his evolution throughout his history. The discovery of the DNA in the 19th century is regarded as one of the most significant biological discoveries of all time. The understanding of the structure and functions of DNA has impacted considerably in the science and medicine fields, with the most noteworthy impact being illustrated in the evolution of man. The discovery of the DNA has since made possible the identification of genes, which in turn permits scientists to acquire more knowledge and perception about the nature of diseases. Consecutively, this has made it permissible for the scientists to be able to diagnosis diseases easily, and by so doing makes it possible to the create drugs to treat these diseases, a quest which is regarded as a fundamental element in the evolution of mankind. In biology, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic factor found in human beings and other life forms and the DNA elements that support this matter are referred to as genes. Nearly all the cells in a creature have similar DNA, the majority of it being centralized in the cell nucleus where it is referred to as nuclear DNA (Neale, 2006). Conversely, we note that trace amounts of DNA are found in the mitochondria which are termed as mitochondrial DNA or basically mtDNA. In DNA data is stored in codes comprising of four chemical elements, namely: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine(C) and thymine (T) (Watson, 2004). Nevertheless, we comprehend that, in human beings, DNA comprises of more than a billions elements, which are more often than not similar in all humans. The orders in which these elements appear establish the availability of elements to build and sustain a being which can be likened to the order of letters that form different words and sentences. The four DNA elements merge in a predetermined sequence, in that, A binds with T while C binds with G which results in the arrangement of elements termed as base pairs. The ratio of adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine oversee the pattern of DNA and each element attaches itself to a sugar molecule and phosphate molecule to form a nucleotide. These nucleotides are then aligned in two strands to form a double helix, which is spiral in shape running in an anti-parallel manner. These arrangements are termed as chromosomes, which during the development of DNA replication, divide and are copied or replicated to create more chromosomes. These results make all the cells to comprise of enough chromosomes to sustain life fully and the key element of DNA is capable of replicating itself to make millions of copies. A DNA strand in a double helix is the prototype for copying the series of bases which is of paramount importance in cell division as the newly created cells requires a similar DNA trait just as the old cell. DNA simultaneously with macromolecules such as proteins, lipids and carbohydrates are necessary in the establishment and maintenance of any form of life, but with the RNA viruses being the exception. The genetic code is the method used in reading the material contained in DNA and this genetic code spells out the plan of amino acids which form proteins in the body and is premeditated by replicating existing DNA strands to RNA acid. This is done through a process which is termed as transcription. Living beings such as animals, fungi and plants, all which are referred to as eukaryotic organisms collect their DNA in the nucleus, mitochondria or chloroplast of their cells. On the other hand, living beings such as bacteria and other single celled organisms commonly termed as prokaryotes collect their DNA in the cytoplasm but the organization and packing of DNA in cells is tasked upon alkaline based proteins known as chromatin. These proteins include histones. The hydrogen bonds between nucleotides assist to stabilize DNA; even though, the interfacing nucleobases in a process of base-stacking is also essential in steadying the DNA helixes. The two classes of nucleobases, are purines which are formed when A and G are combined in the ratio of five to six and pyrimidines which are formed when six C and T bases merge (Watson, 2004). Historical Science: DNA Just like all other components of the history and philosophy of science, the science of the DNA comprises of an intricate history which explains how this science came about. In their article with reference to the structure of the DNA, Williams et al. provide a brief history of the discovery of the DNA in science. The human DNA was discovered in the 19th century by the renown scientist, Freidrich Miescher while in his quest for the understanding the cell chemistry (Williams, B. et al., n.d). For that reason, Miescher discovered the existence of the nuclei in cells, and as a consequence prompted additional research on the components of the human cells. The discoveries of the nuclei showed that there was a transfer of traits between organisms, which, in turn, brought about the existence of DNA in the human cell. The years that followed saw more scientists undertaking the research of the DNA by relying on their individual scientific hypothesis on this subject matter. Different scientists strived to perform experiments so as to achieve more knowledge on the issue. The most universal experiments involved the observation of a stained human cell under the microscope in the quest of trying to discover the DNA in cells. These experiments provided further information and data that was used as verification concerning the existence of DNA in the human cells. Many more scientists ventured into the discovery of DNA while others focused their scientific research on the verification of the non-existence of DNA in human cells (Williams, B. et al., n.d). Consequently, each of these scientists depended on preceding researches in the formulation of their own, which in turn, led to the buttressing of scientific information on the subject of DNA. Ultimately, several scientists, including James Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins managed to provide evidence about the existence of DNA in the human cells, and in consequence building on the perception of the DNA as a blueprint of life. The Discovery of DNA and the Natures of Science Ideas Conceptions on the nature of science have been proposed as a way of explaining about science, as well as, the scientific approaches. These ideas on the subject of the nature of science are numerous, and developed according to the development of science. However, some five fundamental natures of science thoughts have been identified in relation to the historical science of the DNA. They comprise the ideas that science demands evidence, science explains and science predicts as a blend of logic and imagination, science as unbiased, as well as, the notion that science is not authoritarian. Nevertheless, a closer examination of the historical science of DNA divulges the application of all of these thoughts concerning the nature of science. By proving the existence of DNA in human cells required plenty of scientific evidence, in supporting the thought that science demands evidence. Without evidence, proving the existence of DNA in human cells would have been unfeasible (Williams, B. et al., n.d). Secondly, the discovery of DNA demanded a forecast of its existence, as well as, explaining this calculation and supporting it. This is something that the earliest scientists who sought to delve into the subject of DNA depended on heavily. In view of the historical science of DNA it is evident that science is neither biased nor authoritarian, as it is obligatory in the contribution of many scientists for the establishment of the existence of DNA in human cells. The contributions of all scientists were acknowledged, and none was considered as being superior to the other (Cremer, 2001, 292–301). Significance of the Nature of Science Ideas” Crucial Natures of Science ideas” The nature of science ideas presented are fundamental for understanding the scientific process, as well as, how the scientists labor in the history and philosophy of science. In fundamental nature, the nature of science ideas give further details about the common processes and procedures in a variety of scientific disciplines such as the dependence on evidence, and the utilization of logic and imagination, amongst other issues. These ideas illuminate on the perception, techniques, and information requisite for the creation of common scientific understanding (Kriaucionis, 2009). The notion that science requires evidence puts forward a sense of validity in the scientific process. This is so since the scientists are obligated to make available proof that the information presented is true. Consequently, this notion gives a sense of confidence in the scientific process, in addition to all scientific information. At the same time, the notion that science necessitates the use of logic and imagination expounds the role of scientific theories in science. Even more particularly, this idea suggests that scientific reasoning, in one way or another, desires to conform to logical reasoning which consequently, implies that the use of common sense in science supports the ideologies provided by scientific research. Even more so, the idea that science predicts and explains presents the scientific research with the credibility it entails for the provision of scientific information. This, in turn, implies that there is the ability of science to illustrate relationships between phenomena that appear unrelated in common understanding. The thoughts that science is not biased or authoritarian advocates that the scientific information is comprehensive and as a result makes available a sense of assurance in the information provided. In essence, the ideas on the nature of science makes possible for the comprehensive understanding of the scientific process and the essential concepts of scientific research (Timothy, et al, 2009). DNA also portrays various important natures of science ideas such as dependability on empirical data, coherent argument, and rules of evidence, skepticism and testable explanations. All these science ideas are fundamental in demonstrating the functions and significance of DNA as a historical science initiative. The DNA’s dependence on empirical data sets it apart from other works as it is fundamental in the prevention of genetic errors in science because it reduces the reliance on approximations by making available a meticulousness in examination and experiments. DNA usage results in the discovery of very negligible errors, as seen through the various tests conducted to examine its application of empirical data. The dependence on empirical information of DNA is essential as it has led to the discovery and explanation of non-local events in the course of the use of holography. DNA emphasizes that a holograph has enough data to replicate and redistribute itself and form a totally new being. Such holographs are assumed to be present in blood, saliva and mucous; which gives them their regenerative qualities. Additionally, DNA reliance on logical and the longstanding arguments has been whether it or proteins are actually involved in the determination of heredity. There is no indispensable understanding of what causes the blood groups and other elements to be carried down from generations to generations, but the consistent argument has been vital in exemplifying these characteristics of DNA. There is an argument that since DNA was has simple elements, they can not successfully carry all the vital heredity information and the fundamental information which is carried out by complex elements such as proteins. Nonetheless, these hypotheses have been refuted upon the establishment that DNA is the transmission factor for all heredity, and not proteins or nuclei. This function of DNA is essential as it ensures that parents pass to their offspring’s, vital information that dictates life and health as seen through the evolution process. While evolution is occasionally termed as not being an actual science, DNA has been able to present a link between the Stone Age man and the current human form. Furthermore, the fundamental data carried in DNA is important for the inception and maintenance of life (Watson, 2004). DNA exhibits the cynicism thoughts of nature of science as it was and still is approached with a lot of skepticism in the society. A good illustration is during the Human Genome Project, where a lot of skepticism was aired towards the venture which sought to discover man’s heritage dating back numerous generations. The majority of the people did not believe that any form of science may possibly uncover such information but in the recent past, cloning has become a sensitive subject as scientists advocate for the creation of other life forms from others through DNA grafting. But the religious groups and other factions are skeptical about this innovation and some have out rightly opposed the idea. The cynical nature of DNA is essential as it permits for informed decision making by questioning the conventional thinking, and in this manner lets one to determine his own thought towards a specific subject based on his/her own consideration towards concerning the subject matter. In addition, the testable explanations of DNA as a nature of science have been important in assisting mankind to explore into the areas of interest. This nature of science initiative is essential as it has made it possible for mankind to prove the existence of organisms, which were previously thought to be nonexistent (Watson, 2004). By using the evidence to arrive at such elucidation, DNA has been fundamental in the differentiation of organisms that portray imitation characteristics, but do not truly belong to a definite class of organisms. Such organisms have been grouped and classified separately through the study of their DNA components and consequently, the organisms that simply resemble each other are not grouped as one because through DNA, the explanation of their differences and similarities can be established. Such an assemblage is essential in the discovery of vaccines as viruses are observed and weakened before getting injected into the body to flush out toxins by imitating their traits. However, this nature of science idea has not been able to prove some scientists’ hypotheses on existence of extraterrestrial beings. Importance to Students Teaching students the aspects of the nature of science through this historical approach is very important for the understanding of some of the fundamental aspects in science. As established, the historical science of the DNA permits students to comprehend the different ways in which man functions. This, in turn, lets the students to be insightful to the evolution of man and the factors that have aided in this evolution. Similarly, the historical science concerning the DNA will also aid students in appreciating the aspects of the nature of science, as well as, their application in current science. For illustration, by understanding the DNA structure, students gain some knowledge of the elements of the human body, and in consequence can recognize the different components and their uses in the body (Williams, B. et al., n.d). At the onset, the student will gain knowledge of the different techniques of interpreting experimental data in science, as a way of achieving information concerning a particular subject matter. The discovery of the DNA necessitated the performance of various experiments as evidence of its existence and as a result, it was the role of the scientists who were involved to interpret the data collected from the experiments to avail the proof for their discovery of the DNA. Through this historical approach, the students will also have the ability to learn about the impartiality by individual scientists and how scientific objectivity impacts on scientific understanding. With this information, the students can comprehend that science is a collective process and modus operandi, and does not depend on the ideas provided by a single scientist. This will, in turn, give confidence to these students to engage in additional scientific research, which is essential for science. Overwhelmingly, the students will have the capability to tell the different ways through which misunderstandings can be created and how these may be avoided in the scientific procedure. DNA is important since it outlines the existence, from the moment of initiation up to death. This science has not only brought alteration in the scientific and medical fields, but in security parameters as well. Teaching the students the characteristics of DNA are fundamental as it imparts essential knowledge that will make a big difference in the world as a whole since the knowledge of DNA is imperative as it is the key necessity of life because without DNA, the majority of the life forms existing in the world would be obsolete. DNA prescribes life not only by transfers the hereditary information from a parent to the young one but also controls the protein formation in the body. Through the DNA duplication procedure, cell division takes place and transfers data to other cells which result in genetic makeup being passed from generation to generation. By teaching about DNA is essential as it influences the structure and composition of cells which means that DNA determines whether a cell becomes, a hand cell or an ear cell. The comprehension of DNA is fundamental in the study of lineage which is done under genealogy. This science has facilitated people to trace back their ancestry through generations (Watson, 2004). What is more, DNA is imperative in the determination of a child’s paternity for the reason that that the Y-chromosomes do not transform over a period of time. This serves in resolving the social tribulations as well as legal matters in particular concerning inheritance and in divorce cases where the father is unwilling to pay child support by claiming he is not the paternal father of the child in question. Furthermore, DNA is vital as it forms the backbone for development of biological weapons and is consequently supreme that DNA education should be accessible to students. Even more so, criminal investigations have been made easier through this historic science and forensic scientists are able to determine cases by scrutinizing the DNA evidence found on the crime scene and this has led to breakthroughs in criminal cases by linking DNA found to those of suspects. Likewise, in the field of medicine, DNA plays an essential part in the predetermination of diseases that one may be exposed to. By studying the parents’ DNA, medical researchers are able to figure out whether the offspring will inherit diseases suffered by the parent or not and in the recent years scientists have been able to find cures to various diseases by using DNA components of disease resistant beings. Teaching DNA is also essential as it leads to the enhancement of agriculture and its products since the genetically modifying crops and livestock results in the creation of more productive and stronger breeds that are resistant to disease (Watson, 2004). Conclusion The study of DNA demonstrates the rudiments of all living things and it study is appreciated and acknowledged in a variety of fields as it interconnects the living things with their nature and history, while at the same time may be used as a tool to improve the living beings to attain higher standards of life. References: Cremer T, Cremer C (2001). "Chromosome territories, nuclear architecture and gene regulation in mammalian cells". Nat Rev Genet 2 (4): 292–301. Neale MJ, Keeney S (2006). "Clarifying the mechanics of DNA strand exchange in meiotic recombination". Nature 442 (7099): 153–8. Kriaucionis S, Heintz N (2009). "The nuclear DNA base 5-hydroxymethylcytosine is present in Purkinje neurons and the brain". Science 324 (5929): 929–30. Timothy, M. & Marc, A. & Fritz, A. (2009). “Philosophy of science: an historical anthology.” Wiley-Blackwell. Watson, J.D. (2004) DNA: The Secret of Life. U.K. Arrow Books Publishers. Williams, B. et al., n.d. Model Building: Piecing Together the Structure of DNA. Retrievedfrom: http://www.storybehindthescience.org/pdf/dna.pdf. Read More