Development of European Science and Medicine - Research Paper Example

? Development of Science and Medicine in Europe Introduction Science encompasses an array of empirical, theoretical and practical knowledge about natural world backed by observation, explanation and prediction produced by experiments. The Medieval period (5th century to 15th century) in the history of Europe was characterized by a series of radical changes in the rate of new scientific and technological inventions. In the Early Middle Ages Jews (John) migrated from Mediterranean region into North and Central Europe. They brought with them treasures of medical knowledge and texts of earlier Arab and Latin physicians and dominated medicine in Germany. Historical data notes bring to light that Jews were 1% of Europe’s population but constituted 50% of its physicians. During early stages of this period Islamic philosophy, science and medicine was more advanced. Islamic scholars (Amber 357) both preserved and added their own innovations upon Ancient Greek and Roman traditions. The work of great researchers Aristotle, Ptolemy, Avicenna, Jabir ibn Hayyan and Averroes, backed by their contact with the Islamic world in Spain and access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts of the early 12th century opened the doors to academic awakening in Europe. Later, European scholars approached Toledo School of translators to initiate translation programs from Arabic to Latin and aided universities aiming development of scientific communities. The Black Death and other debacles in the late 12th century ended massive learning till it was resumed in 1453 after The Fall of Constantinople. 2. Impact of Science in Medieval Western Europe At the beginning of the 13th century (Late Middle Ages) intellectual translations of the important works related to science, natural philosophy and medicine were allowed to spread via both universities and monasteries. It was then, during the Renaissance period 14th century to 17th century that academicians presented the various facets of biological sciences (botany, anatomy, medicine) art, and culture. Invention of printing press in the same era found a way to fast printing of books and spread of ideas around Europe like never before, embarking a revolution in Science and Information Technology. Books namely, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body) by Andreas Vesalius, and De Revolutionibus, by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, were first to be printed. Though the teachings of church dominated medicine, physicians focused on deepening their knowledge about human body by reading translations from Arabian medical texts. The first anatomical drawings made by Andreas Vesalius and Leonardo Da Vinci after dissection of human body helped in understanding of the internal organs and various systems. The Church prevented medical researchers from dissection of ‘God fearing human bodies’, but allowed criminals and sinners to be dissected as a part of punishment either alive or dead. William Harvey’s experiments in 1628, theorized that the heart act as a muscular pump circulating blood around the body in the blood vessels. Thus understanding of the human body systems forged with the study of Arabic texts on medicinal value of herbs and minerals chalked out more advances in the field of scientific investigations. .The Renaissance apothecaries brought new plants from distant lands explored by Christopher Columbus and others and experimented with them. Apothecary is a historical name to an institution of modern pharmacists and medical practitioners; first apothecary shop was founded by Muslim Pharmacist during Islamic Golden Age and was popular in Spain by the 11th century (High Middle Ages). The work of apothecary in investigation of herbal and chemical ingredients may be regarded as a precursor of modern sciences and medicine.Qninine extracted from bark of Quina tree was used in treatment of malaria; tobacco leaves were considered to be containing medicinal properties and an opium-based painkiller was prescribed for many disorders. Trade between different parts of the world flourished with the exploration of new continents.Exposure to pathogens collated with absence of natural immunity to the diseases killed more than a third of Europe’s population during intercontinental expeditions .Bubonic plaque traversing Chinese trade route and small pox `during Spanish colonialism in North America were among the few severe killer diseases. Medical treatment was so expensive that majority of the population which was poor could not afford. Moreover, hospitals were located in the cities far from the reach of a common man. Santa Maria Nuova in Florence was among the first European School to impart medical teachings but remained in the hands of wealthy people. In the due course of time, there appeared a great number of hospitals and medical schools, especially in France, England and Italy providing medical care for sick pilgrims and sufferers of chronic diseases. Medical professionals then preferred tying of wound to stop bleeding as opposed to the traditional method of burning skin with red hot metal. A drill, a saw, forceps, pliers constituted the basic set of instruments to perform operation and the need of a trained surgeon would be filled in by an experience local barber in performing surgery and removing teeth! 3. Scientific Revolution and Early Modern Europe The theory of humours dictated the medieval medicine in Western Europe up until the 19th century. According to this theory, every human body consisted of four humours, or principal fluids: black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood and a balance of these fluids had to be maintained to remain healthy. The invention of microscope in late 14th century paved the way to first laboratory based observation of bacteria and microorganisms by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, introducing a new scientific field:  microbiology. In 1847, Germ theory of diseases was predated when Hungarian physician Ignac Fulop Semmelweis accidentally decreased the number of causalities suffering with puerperal fever (Cambell, Brad, Robin) by directing physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. His work was published in The Cause, Concept and Prophylaxis of Childbed Fever in 1861, and summarized his experiments and observations. Later on in 1865, British surgeon Joseph Lister incorporated widespread introduction of antiseptic surgical methods and published a paper Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery and suggested the use of carbolic acid (phenol) `as a germ killer. Lister’s works were backed by important researches of Louis Pasteur, a French biologist who linked microorganisms with diseases and discovered a vaccine against rabies in 1880.Pasteurization, was the term coined after the name of scientist Louis Pasteur when he invented a method to prevent the spread of diseases that were caused due to contamination of milk and food products. In the same time Claude Bernard, a famous French physiologist established scientific insight into the medicine through his paper, An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine. 4. Modern Science and Medicine . In late 19th century Germany launched a special health insurance program for the Germans, rewarding financially the specialist doctors in the panel. The Scientific Revolution has been successful in establishing professionalized and institutionalized ways of medical practices in the 19th century which continued through the 20th century. As a result, many aspects in functioning of the nation-states along with their longstanding science issues started incorporating technological innovations coupled with new possibilities and approaches. The first publication of William Whewell History of the Inductive Sciences in early 19th century introduced history of science as an academic field followed by more formal study when  George Sarton's publication, Introduction to the History of Science appeared in the European market around early 20th century. Despite the fact that meaning and objectivity of science remained a topic of high decibel debate until late 18th century among historians, physicians, sociologists and philosophers, yet emphasis on the ‘produce’ and ‘construct’ of scientific researches continued. Perhaps, the most striking theory which later became a major area of study both for industrial and scientific development was the laws of inheritance rediscovered by Gregor Mendel in 1886.In 1953 Watson and Crick discovered the structure of DNA(James and Francis 737) which further initiated development of molecular biology and genetics. It was as an outcome of the scholastic studies performed by many physicians in quick succession, that strict sterilization programs were started in modern countries of Europe. The historical work of women apothecaries as midwives, sitters and cleaning women encouraged Florence Nightingale of British origin to take up the role of nursing and serving wounded soldiers during Crimean war and patients who were left unattended due to poor hygiene and malnutrition. In the subsequent years public health and nutrition continued to improve; cures were developed for specific endemic infectious diseases; followed by decline in causalities struggling with many lethal diseases. The invention of Roentgen’s X-Ray and electrocardiograph was a major break through amongst other beneficial researches, as monitoring of human internal organs became easy. Post World War II era witnessed widespread introduction of antimicrobial therapy when British scientists clubbed with the American pharmaceutical industry for the massive production of Penicillin antibiotics. As against diagnosing illness caused due to pathogens, psychiatry was introduced but encompassed a broad spectrum of controversial medical practices like convulsive attack using electroshock or cutting parts of the brain. However, with increasing awareness about health issues and harmful effects, psychiatry became discouraging; people abstained themselves from taking drugs unless subjected to severe ‘psychiatric control’. The 20th century Europe witnessed more professed growth in the realm of science and medicine with the popularity of Evidence-based medicine (EBM) or  Evidence –based practice (EBP) (Timmermans and Mauk ) heading to apply the best available evidence collected from the scientific method to clinical decision making , seeking to benefits of treatments (including lack of treatment) and diagnostic tests.  The wide range of evidence quality included  meta-analyses and systematic of double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trials at the high end, down to accustomed wisdom at the bottom. Conclusion Advances in technology and knowledge had always complemented each other in the history of science and medicine. Scientific Revolution until late 20th century was characterized by victory of true theories over the false, but continued as a major event in the progress of European civilization. References John Etron “Medicine and the German Jews” .The Journal of National Medical Association Vol 95(2). Yale UniversityPress, February 2006.Print   Amber Haque, "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health Vol (4): 357-377 .2004.Print.  Campbell, Neil A.; Brad Williamson; Robin J. Heyden. Biology: Exploring Life. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006.Print James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick. "Letters to Nature: Molecular structure of Nucleic Acid." Nature, 737–738 .1953.Print. Timmermans S, Mauck A.” The promises and pitfalls of evidence-based medicine”.Health Aff Vol (1): 18-28. 2005. Print. Read More