Learning Through Touch - Essay Example

Contents Preface …………….…………………………………………………………. p Introduction …………………………………………………………………... p 1. The functions of touch ………….……………………………………....... p 2 2. My observation .……………………………………………………………. p 3. Intervention plan …………………………………………………………… p a. Motivation for learning ……………………………………………………. p b. Creating an environment for learning ……………………………….......... p Conclusion ……………………………………………………………............. p References …………………………………………………………….............. p Bibliography ………………………………………………………………….. p Appendix 1 – Child Z statement of special education needs. Appendix 2 – Child Z assessment report from clinic. Appendix 3 – Pupil Z National Curriculum Assessment 2011 Appendix 4 – Child Z physiotherapy review report. Appendix 5 – Pupil Z individual observation programme. Appendix 6 – Pupils Z observation programme in class. Introduction ‘In order to help someone to learn something (…) we should carefully examine the way that it is learnt naturally and use these processes whenever possible’. (Hewett & Nind, cited in Whitefield, 2011) The learning process of a multi-sensory impaired (MSI) child, such as a deafblind child, needs to be highly individualized and address the child’s unique ways of learning and his own interests. The deafblind child, like the multi-sensory impaired (MSI) child, only has diminished contexts because of the limited channels available for learning unlike those children with normal hearing and sight. They may gain much of their experience and knowledge of the world around them through touch, since it may be the least impaired sensory channel (Aitkin et al., 2000; Bradley-Johnson et al., 2004; Chen, 1995 & 1999; Chen et al., 2000; Goold & Hummerll, 1993; McLinden & McCall, 2002; Miller & Ockelford, 2005; RNIB, 2011; SENSE, 2011). In many instances children who are deafblind or multi-sensory impaired (MSI) may also have additional physical and health problems that limit their ability to move about in the world as freely and independently as possible. The disability of deafblindness or multi-sensory impairment (MSI) presents unique challenges to teachers who must make sure that the person who has varying degrees of visual and hearing impairment, possibly combined with learning and physical disabilities, has access to the world beyond the limited reach of his or her eyes and ears. They must try to include them in learning and in experiencing the physical environments that surround them. If they do not, the child will not have the opportunity to develop (Department of Education, 2011; Huebner et al., 1997; Joffee & Rikhye, 1997; McInnes, 1999; McInnes & Treffry, 2001). In this assignment, I aim to discuss the reasons why children who are deafblind or multi-sensory impaired (MSI) are more reliant on touch or their tactile senses to experience the world. This assignment is divided into the following sections. Firstly, I have attempted to define the function of touch in development of a deafblind or multi-sensory impairment (MSI) child. Secondly, I have outlined the abilities of one particular pupil as I observed him over the period of two weeks in order to gain an insight into his learning. I have provided information about the child’s special educational needs based on references to information in the school class files, archived materials (medical reports) and my own observations. Thirdly, I have tried to point out the various challenges that were presented to me during the course of my observations. Finally, I will consider how to develop his early tactile skills. My role in relation to this project was chiefly concerned with observing and working with the pupil. It was important to collaborate with his teachers and support staff as they could provide additional knowledge and experience of the child. It was very fortunate that my colleagues were fully in support of this project and wanted to find a way of improving opportunities to learn for the pupil. I felt it was crucial that I aimed to facilitate teaching strategies and activities that motivated him to want to develop his tactile skills. The functions of touch Maria Montessori stated that, ‘the hands are the instruments of man’s intelligence’.  She further explains that, ‘the human hand allows the mind to reveal itself’ (Montessori, 2011). I agree with Maria Montessori that our hands are an incredible tool. They play a leading role especially in the first months of an infant’s life, in experiencing the world through touching, feeling, exploring and manipulating objects but for some of us they are a crucial tool for learning throughout life (Bushnell & Boudreau, 1998; Bushnell & Baxt, 1999; Goold & Hummell, 1993; Roder et al., 2000). ‘Touch necessary plays a very important part in the world of a child who cannot gain accurate information about his environment from the two distance senses of sight and hearing’. (Etheridge, 1995:13) I agree with Etheridge that touch is considered an important sense to learn and experience the world for children with impaired vision and hearing. Nevertheless, it remains important that we, as educators, not only provide adequate support but also maintain the utmost sensitivity to the physical difficulties pupils may experience in attempting to perform the simplest of tasks. The work of people such as Barbara Miles, Lilli Nielsen, and Deborah Chen has made us very aware of the need to pay more attention to the sense of touch in developing programs and using teaching strategies for these children. For example, teachers should provide them with a greater variety of textures and materials and give them more time and opportunities for the exploration of objects (Chen, 1995 & 1999; Chen et al., 2000; Miles & Riggio, 1999; Miles, 2003; Nielsen, 1991, 1997 & 2003). This active use of touch has been called “haptic” touch (Schiff & Foulke, 2011:72). Schiff and Foulke stated that a great deal of sensory information (texture, hardness, temperature, weight, shape, size or volume) can be gained through exploration with hands as opposed to looking at them. This is especially so for the children with visual impairments, as it may help them make sense of the world around them based on what they are experiencing through touch. When a visually impaired child’s opportunity to access the world through the use of touch is affected because of motor problems or delays it is still important for the development of this child to encourage active hand behaviours (Goold & Hummerll, 1993; McInnes & Treffry, 2001; McLinden, 1999; McLinden & Douglas, 2000; Miles & Riggio, 1999; Nielsen, 1977). Educational strategies for promoting tactile exploration in respect of this population generally advocate an individualised approach (see McInnes & Treffrey, 2001; Miles 1999; Chen, 1995 & 1999; Chen et al., 2000; Nielsen, 1997, 1990, 1991 & 2003). Many different strategies may be utilised when supporting or encouraging tactile exploration: Using the hand-under-hand approach to guide the child. Giving the child objects that encourage the development of skills. Providing the child with many opportunities each day to explore a wide range of objects on his/her own. Playing hands games with the child. Offering many hands–on learning experiences with real objects Providing more time for the child to explore objects within activities. My observation ‘Physical control gives children a degree of independence, allowing them to access objects, places and activities, to join in play and leisure activities and to participate in social and self-care activities’. (Pease, 2011:3) I think I take for granted the amount of movement I do during the day and how it has impacted on my learning and development. A physical impairment often affects learning. Therefore a hearing or visual impairment in a child or adult severely diminishes access to information from the environment and impedes opportunities for learning and development. Hence, I believe it was crucial that I provided opportunities for my pupil to learn through tactile skills in order to stimulate his interest and ability to experience the world around him and motivate him to move outward in the first place. The pupil I am concerned with, whom I shall call Pupil Z, is a 14 year old boy with motor development delay (delayed bone age, poor stability and fluctuating muscle), and visual and cognitive impairment (Appendix 1). Pupils Z was born in a hospital in South Asia and, according to the medical records, he was delivered by a normal delivery at term, and there were no concerns occurring before his birth. His parents noted that he did not reach his developmental level at nine months because he was unable to sit. The family was also concerned about his visual responses (Appendix 2). The documentation in Pupil Z’s records indicate that he has retinal dystrophy, called Leber’s Congenital Amaurosis (LCA), a rare eye condition caused by an abnormality in a gene which causes progressive vision loss (GHR, 2011). When Pupil Z was a little boy his family moved to the United Kingdom. He now attends a special school which caters for children with sensory impairments and learning difficulties (SILD). He has been following the Pre-Formal Curriculum which addresses the needs of pupils working at developmental levels well below the National Curriculum standards. From his recent results in the National Curriculum Assessment he was achieving P-Level 2, which implied he was generally functioning at a very early developmental level (Appendix 3). In terms of his gross motor abilities, Pupil Z requires supportive seating and regularly uses his standing frame at school. He also has a walking frame in school. However, the school physiotherapist reported that ‘Pupil Z has become more difficult for staff to walk him since his last review’ (Appendix 4:2). For example, he will walk a few steps and then stand still. Or if the walker was pushed by an adult, he will raise his legs expecting a ride rather than expecting to walk himself although the staff reported that ‘he will walk in it with his dad’ (Appendix 3:1). ‘Before arranging a specific environment, it is necessary to observe what the child is able to do, whether his hands are totally passive or moving in some way, whether his hands are small or big, and whether he is able to spread fingers or lies with clinched hands (…)’. (Neilsen, 1997:65) From my observations of Pupil Z it was evident that there were consistencies between comments made in the statement, multidisciplinary reports (the speech and language therapist, the physiotherapist or his teacher) and what I was experiencing when observing. For example, in terms of his communication he was able to communicate a few words in English, such as “more” or “water”. He appeared to have a good understanding of the word “more” and “water” in an activity context. For example, during the water play, he would use the word “more” and “water” repetitively to elicit responses and interactions from me when prompted (Appendix 5). Members of staff have reported that he is very curious about the sounds around him and uses his hearing well to make a sense of the world around him. For example, when travelling across the school building he will vocalise loudly to hear the echo as if this auditory feedback gives him a sense of where he is. He will show interest in the sounds of strange voices or noises and will stand still to listen to them (Appendix 6). My observations have confirmed that he did show more interest in exploring objects which have auditory sound as opposed to those that only give him tactile feedback. For example, he would reach out to locate such items when he hears them being played. He would use both hands to grasp an object for a brief moment (5 to 10 seconds) before dropping it on the floor. He also liked to hear the sound of them again which motivated him to repeat the task. During these tasks, he did not show a particular preference for either hand but this did not seem to impede his attempts to locate desired objects (Appendix 5). Pupil Z enjoyed putting his hands on vibrating objects and feeling the vibrations when I was operating them. He was able to use switches to operate toys or equipment I offered to him after demonstrating to him the action once by hitting the switch with his whole hand (Appendix 5). However, if similar activities were presented to him during self-occupation time he quickly lost interest in continuing action independently and needed encouragement from an adult (Appendix 6). Members of staff have also reported that during activities or self-occupation tasks he will happily listen to busy classroom sounds and often gets very excited rather than use his hands to explore different objects, materials or substance (Appendix 6). During my observations, he would move his hands laterally through soft substances while patting and splashing the liquids. He was able to use the word “more” to prolong a water play activity. In agreement with class staff I felt this was because he likes to feel the water on his skin and hear the sound of splashing water (Appendix 5). ‘Giving the wide range of educational needs created by multiple disabilities, the role of touch in a child’s learning can be easily neglected’. (McLinden & McCall, 2002: xiii) I felt that recording individual observations of Pupil Z would be the most effective method of collecting data as it would give me the first hand evidence of Pupil Z’s movement. I also felt it was necessary to observe him in structured activities to give me a more informed view of his abilities and possible barriers to learning. I decided to observe him in a whole group session (sensory story ‘Charlie and the Chocolate Factory’) which provides the opportunities for pupils to experience movement as well as explore, smell and taste different materials (Appendix 6). I decided to observe this session and make notes on Pupil Z’s reaction to the different stimuli. I wanted to observe his movements and then reflect on how I could improve the movement experience for him. Pupil Z seemed to thoroughly enjoy this session. This was evident in his smiles and laughter and making lots of intentional movement with his head and arms. As the session progressed, his arms seemed to gradually move up and out to access different objects and equipment offered to him. However, from my observations of Pupil Z, it was evident that the adults were intervening too much in his learning by directly guiding his hands and not giving him enough time to respond to stimuli that were offered to him. For example, he was lifting his arms and placing them onto his tray a lot. This lasted a few seconds before the adults put an object into his hands and coactively explored it then released his grip and removed the item. The pupil seemed to have a very stem look on his face and withdrew his hands to the side of his chair (Appendix 6). Intervention plan ‘A period of co-active movement is essential to provide security and to aid the development of the skills’. (McInnes & Treffery, 2001:95) McInnes and Treffery (2001) advocate that the child must have the intervention of adults to enable them to explore, manipulate and become familiar with their surroundings. I feel that it is the nature of the support and the ability of the adult to facilitate the pupil’s potential to learn through their own movements that are important. This was evident in my observation of Pupil Z. For example, although Pupil Z was experiencing difficulties in accessing different stimuli, I felt his potential ability to lift his arms, reach out for and touch different stimuli was cancelled out by the adult intervening too quickly and not allowing him time to make the movement. Consequently, I was not able to find out what movements he could have made by himself. I also felt that Pupil Z showed the ability to make intentional movements towards objects during the period of my observations. He was able to explore co-actively, reach out and hold motivating objects with one or two hands for brief moment (5-10 seconds). However, there were the issues of his tendency to self-stimulating behaviour (eye-poking, pinching, throwing objects, grasping clothes or hair) and lack of motivation to investigate systematically the immediate environment with his hands (Pupil Z, 2011). ‘(…) it would be of benefit to the visually impaired child if his teachers would exclude from their educational methods the approach of guiding his hands. The only strategy for tactile search which is of value for the child who is visually impaired is his own’ (Nielsen, 1996:31) Nielsen’s notion of ‘taking hands-off’ fits aptly with the observation I had made. Hence, I recognise that pupils with physical impairments can benefit from adult support but I believe that we could support them in reaching towards objects without being too intrusive. Motivation for learning ‘Most children who have not the benefit of intensive intervention beginning in early infancy tend to develop one or two methods of handling their contact with environment. One approach is to become hypoactive-like in their behaviour (…) withdrawn completely from the world about them’. (McInnes & Treffery, 2001:19) The importance of sensory stimulation at a young age for the development of the brain is well-known (Fraiberg, 1977). A visually impaired child gets little incidental motivation to learn to use his vision, which often causes tendency for that child to withdraw into passive or self-stimulating behaviours that ‘can lead to lack of interest in touching anything other than their own body’ (Nielsen, 2003:33). Selma Fraiberg (1997) and Lillie Nielsen (2003) have heighted awareness that the hands of a visually impaired child often behave like a mouth of an infant in the early months of his or her life (pinch, bit, snatch, etc) for very short period of time. A visually impaired child with not enough stimulation may stay on this very early developmental level for a very long period of time. , I feel it is important to provide Pupil Z with as many opportunities each day to release the energy from his hands not only by offering him a wide variety of objects (equipment and toys) to explore on his own but by introducing more one-to-one activities that involve personal interaction, e.g. playing simple turn taking games and offering hand massage. As Laura Pease(2000) stated ‘one of the most effective ways of establishing contact with deafblind children and so encouraging a communicative response is to share activities with high levels of physical contact and pleasant sensations’ (Pease, 2000:47). ‘A deaf-blind child will have difficulties developing accurate ideas about the world unless [s]he has at least one trusting, significant, meaningful relationship to serve as a centre from which to explore the world in gradually widening circles.’ (Nafstad & Rodbroe, 1999:7) I agree with Nafstad and Rodbroe that establishing a secure and trusted environment and bonding with the child will motivate him to reach out, to try new things, explore and communicate. I also think that even though we do not always have the luxury to work one-to-one with child, when we do we should make the most of it by actively involving the child in the learning process with minimum direct adult intervention. This approach is based on Lilli Nielsen’s (1990) belief that all children learn more from their own active exploration and examination than passively receiving information from the environment. Nielsen’s recommendations include using the technique of ‘offering’ the child objects by placing them under his hand, ‘imitating’ the actions of the child on the objects, ‘modelling’ the activity as close to the child’s hands as the child will allow and ‘sharing’ activities with others to imitate and interact with others. According to Nielsen (1997) learning is possible if the child is given opportunities which are appropriate to his developmental level, can discover, experiment and explore a wider range of materials and objects, has sufficient time to explore and repeat an action as many times as necessary, has the opportunity to compare his experience and somebody to share his interest and experiences. She believes that the first prerequisite in helping a child to learn is to create environments that build on skills the child already has which encourage him to use his hands to develop further. Creating an environment for learning ‘Children who are blind need a carefully ordered and structured environment based on non-visual references’. (McLinden & McCall, 2002:99) The school environment I work in is not ideal since it has not been designed with the visually impaired child in mind, Nevertheless, I think some adaptations can be made to provide a predictable environment which can increase Child Z’s confidence and encourage him to learn. For example, he can be given an opportunity to familiarize himself with the seating patterns and the location of storage areas in the classroom. Teachers often attempt to improve pupils’ sittings arrangements in the classroom by moving the things around not realising how big an impact that has on the child’s learning. He may not be able to regain information about the materials and resources without having to search unknown places. We are often tempted to remove materials as soon as the child shows that he can use them whereas for a visually impaired child to be able to relate new information to things he already knows is fundamental for his learning (Jan van Dijk, 2011; Nielson 1997 & 2003; Winnicott, 1980). ‘Throughout life certain objects may acquire powerful symbolic significance’. (Edwards & Feltham, 2011) Winnicott (1980) discussed the importance of ‘transitional object’ in human development. He discovered by observing the early interaction with primary care givers that every child has a favourite object that almost always forms a part of his or her experience. This special object helps in the transition from old to new objects and experience. I feel the notion of ‘transitional object’ is very apt in light of the observation I had made. It was necessary to observe which objects Pupil Z likes to play with and to include them when introducing to him new objects and activities to motivate him to use his hands to learn and develop. ‘Instead of being motor active the learner with visual dysfunction directs his awareness (…) towards the sounds that occur around him’. (Nielsen, 2003:33) It is well-known that a visually impaired child is much more reliant on other senses for input of information than a sighted child. Hearing is the most obvious one especially if he or she is physical impaired (Mason & McCall, 1997; Webster & Roe, 1998). Lillie Nielsen stated that a visually impaired child will not automatically listen with concentration or be able to interpret and use different sounds if he has no influence on how the sound will take place. She further explains that ‘rather than focusing on the source of the sound as being exciting, and inviting to explore, it is the duration of the sound and its potential to repetition that is captivating’ (Nielsen, 2003:33). My observations of Pupil Z have confirmed that although he is motivated to explore objects which give him auditory feedback, he has varying abilities to respond to sound. The pupil’s responses reflect the complexity of his cognitive needs. Therefore, it is important that he is presented not only with a carefully considered range of objects with auditory and appealing tactile qualities but also multi-modal experience to support his understanding of events and actions. McInnes and Treffrey (2001) in the book ‘Deaf-Blind Infants and Children: A developmental Guide’ suggested ways to promote the awareness of sound and draw the pupils’ attention to the functional use of hearings-: by promoting awareness of sound in ‘safe’ environment, establishing a cue which indicate you want him to listen, provide oral back up to signs or gestures and be also conversational and noisy in your approach. In practise this emphasises the need for creating the quiet area for work where Child Z will not be distracted by listening to unnecessary background noises. Although Nielsen (1997) highlights that it is valuable to have a learning environment in which background noises are softened, she further adds it would not be good if all such noises were cut out because many noises give clues as to what is going on. Nevertheless, it is important to provide Pupil Z with as many opportunities to ‘regular and frequent interactions’ not only to support his understanding of the world around him but develop his communication skills (Nind & Hewett, 2005). ‘Teachers (…) need to adapt their approach to communication, making conscious and explicit what appears to happen (…) and looking carefully at the value of specific strategies for individual children’. (Pease, 2000:41) Laura Pease (2000) illustrates the need to re-examine our perceptions of communication when working with visual impaired. I think that meeting the learning needs of pupil who have severe disabilities and who do not have clear access to visual information is challenging. It seems even more important to use effective tactile strategies which take into consideration the individual student’s needs and abilities, learning, environment and task. However I belief these strategies can best support pupils’ learning when there is a concerted effort on the part of the team, additional time for the presentation of tactile information, and systematic evaluation of adaptations. A teacher’s instructional style certainly influences what a pupil learns. For this reason we should be even more careful when planning activities and using strategies. The teacher must convey his or her instructional expectations, mood, and information through physical contact with the student. Conclusion This assignment began by describing my growing interest in this subject and the importance of tactile exploration in the learning of a visually impaired child and of developing tactile skills of one of the pupil. My aim was to observe Pupil Z and based on my findings come up with strategies that the staff could use to support pupils in their learning. Through a number of observations I planned, carried out and evaluated with Pupil Z two key issues arose- stereotypical behaviours and lack of motivation to learn through tactile exploration. Through my one-to-one observation of Pupil Z I concluded that in an environment where he is not distracted he has the ability to use his hands. The interactions were frequent and lasting for 5 to 10 minutes as I discovered that pupils have the ability to concentrate on a task for only short periods of time. My observation confirmed most of the information I found out through interviewing the class staff. In the short term, I was able to highlight the reason why Pupil Z lacked the motivation to learn and explain to staff the origin of his inappropriate behaviours (pulling clothes, pinching adults). Overall I feel the issues which arose from this assignment need further investigation. References Deaf Blind Children’s Found (2011). About Deaf Blindness. [Online], Available at: http://www.deafblindchildren.org/about.html Edwards, D. & Feltham, M. (2011). Transitional Objects. [Online], Available at: www.sheffield.ac.uk/polopoly.../transtional-objects-workshop-handout.pdf Etheridge, D. (1995). The Education of Dual Sensor Impaired Children: Recognising and Developing Abilities. London: David Fulton. McInnes, J. M. & Treffry, J. A. (2001). Deaf-Blind Infants and Children: A developmental Guide. University of Toronto Press. McLinden, M. & McCall, S. (2002). Learning through touch. Supporting children with visual impairment and additional difficulties. London: David Fulton. Montessori, M. (2011). Tactile exploration 101: what are some sensory stimulation activities? [Online], Available at: http://www.examiner.com/early-childhood-educational-activities-in-national/tactile-exploration-101-what-are-some-sensory-stimulation-activities Nafstad, A. & Rodbroe, I. (1999). Co-creating communication: perspectives on diagnostic education for individuals who are congenitally deafblind and individuals whose impairments may have similar effects. Denmark: Forlaget Nord-Press. Nielsen, L. (1996). ‘How to approach of guiding the hands of the visually impaired child can disturb his opportunity to build up strategies for tactile orientation’, British Journal of Visual Impaired 14(1), pp. 29-31. Nielsen, L. (1997). Early Learning - Step by Step. Copenhagen:: SIKON. Nielsen, L. (2003). Space and Self. Denmark: SIKON. Pease, L. (2000). Creating a communicative environment. In Atiken, S., Brultjens, M., Clark, C., Early J.T. & Pease, L. Teaching children who are deafblind: Contact, communication and learning. London: David Fulton. Pease, L. (2011). Program of study: Physical Development. [Online], Available at: http://whitefield.web7.devwebsite.co.uk/_files/School%20Policies/E5264BD51F0C4D2B1FCC872AEFEF6780.pdf Sherborne, V. (2011). Developmental movement. [Online], Available at: http://www.sherbornemovement.org/ Whitefield Schools & Centre (2011). Programme of study: Communication, Language and Literacy Pre-Formal Curriculum. [Online], Available at: http://whitefield.web7.devwebsite.co.uk/_files/School%20Policies/B566C95CCC6C2248FC91D3E0BBE86A01.pdf Whitefield Schools & Centre (2011). Programme of study: Sensory Development. [Online], Available at: http://whitefield.web7.devwebsite.co.uk/_files/School%20Policies/B566C95CCC6C2248FC91D3E0BBE86A01.pdf Whitefield Schools & Centre (2011). Programme of study: Exploring and Ordering the world Pre-Formal Curriculum. [Online], Available: at: http://whitefield.web7.devwebsite.co.uk/_files/School%20Policies/E250A4E41AB49B076BA4A7140806C24E.pdf Books Aitken, S., Buultjens, M., Clark, C., Eyre, J. T., & Pease, L. (2000). Teaching children who are deafblind: Contact, communication and learning. London: David Fulton Publishers. Bradley-Johnson, S., Johnson, C., Swanson, J., & Jackson, A. (2004). ‘Exploratory behavior: A comparison of infants who are congenitally blind and infants who are sighted’, Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness 9(8), pp. 496–502. Bushnell, E. W., and Boudreau, J. P. (1998). ‘Exploring and exploiting objects with the hands during infancy’ in K. Connolly (Ed.), The Psychobiology of the Hand, pp. 144–161, Cambridge, UK: Mac Keith Press. Bushnell, E. W., and Baxt, C. (1999). ‘Children’s haptic and cross-modal recognition with familiar and unfamiliar objects’, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 25, pp. 1867–1881. Chen, D. (1995). The beginnings of communication: Early childhood. In K. M. Huebner, J. G. Prickett, T. R. Welch, & E. Joffee (Eds.), Hand in hand: Essentials of communication and orientation and mobility for your students who are deaf-blind (pp. 185–218). New York: AFB Press. Chen, D. (1999). Beginning communication with infants. In D. Chen (Ed.), Essential elements in early intervention. Visual impairments and multiple disabilities (pp. 337–377). New York: AFB Press. Chen, D, Downing, J.E. & Rodriguez-Gill, G. (2000). ‘Tactile learning strategies for children who are deaf-blind: concerns and considerations from Project SALUTE’, Deaf-Blind Perspective, 8(2), pp.1-6. Dijk, J. (2011). Development Through Relationships Entering the Social World. [Online], Available at: http://nationaldb.org/ISSelectedTopics.php?topicID=69&topicCatID=7 Department of Education (2011). Special Education Needs Code of Practice. [Online], Available at: http://media.education.gov.uk/assets/files/pdf/s/sencodeofpractice.pdf Fraiberg, S. (2011). Insights from the blind; comparative studies of blind and sighted infants. New York: Basic Books. [Online], Available at: http://books.google.com/books?Insights+from+the+Blind+by+Selma+Fraiberg/hl Genetics Home Reference (2011). Genetic condition: Leber congenital amaurosis. [Online], Available at: http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/leber-congenital-amaurosis Goold, L., & Hummell, J. (1993). Supporting the receptive communication of individuals with significant multiple disabilities: Selective use of touch to enhance comprehension. Australia: North Rocks Press. Huebner, K.M., Prickett, J..G., Welch, T.R. & Joffee, E. (1997).Hand in Hand: Essentials of Communication and Orientation and Mobility for Your Students Who Are Deaf-Blind. New York: AFB Press. Joffee, E. & Rikhye, C.H. (1997). Orientation and Mobility for Students with Sever Visual and Multiple Impairments: A New Perspective. In Huebner, K.M., Prickett, J..G., Welch, T.R. & Joffee, E. Hand in Hand: Selective Reprints and Annotated Bibliography on Working with Students Who Are Deaf-Blind. New York: AFB Press. Miles, B., & Riggio, M. (1999). Remarkable conversations. A guide to developing meaningful conversations with children and young adults who are deafblind. Watertown, MA: Perkins School for the Blind. Mason, H. & McCall, S. (1997). Visual impairment: access to education for children and young people. London: David Fulton. Miles, B. (2003). Talking the Language of the Hands to the Hands. [Online], Available at: htt://www.tr.wou.edu/dblink/lib/hands.htm McInnes, J. M. (1999). A Guide to Planning and Supporting for Individuals Who Are Deafblind. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. McInnes, J. M. & Treffry, J. A. (2001). Deaf-Blind Infants and Children: A developmental Guide. Canada: University of Toronto Press. McLinden, M. (1999). ‘Hands on: haptic exploration exploratory strategies in children who are blind with multiple disabilities’, British Journal of Visual Impairment 17(1), pp. 23-9. McLinden, M. & Douglas, G. (2000). ‘Haptic exploratory strategies in blind children with multiple disabilities: preliminary case study findings’, Journal of Visual Impairment 8(1), pp. 5-10. McLinden, M. & McCall, S. (2002). Learning through touch. Supporting children with visual impairment and additional difficulties. London: David Fulton. Miller, O. & Ockelford, A. (2005). Visual needs. New York: Continuum. Nielsen, L. (1990). Are you Blind? Copenhagen: SIKON. Nielsen, L. (1991). ‘Spatial relations in congenitally blind infants: A study’, Journal of Visual Impairments & Blindness, 85, pp. 11–18. Nielsen, L. (1977). The Comprehending Hand. Copenhagen: SIKON. Nielsen, L. (1997). Early Learning - Step by Step. Copenhagen:: SIKON. Nielsen, L. (2003). Space and Self. Denmark: SIKON. Nind, M. & Hewett, D. (2005). Access to Communication: Developing the basics of communication in people with severe learning difficulties through Intensive Interaction. London: David Fulton. Pupil, Z. (2011). Exploring and Ordering the World. Pre-Formal Curriculum tracking documents. Class files. RNIB (2011). Using touch with children with complex needs. [Online], Available at: http://www.rnib.org.uk/professionals/education/schoolbasedlearning/complexneeds/communication/Pages/using_touch.aspx Roder, B. J., Bushnell, E. W., and Sasseville, A. M. (2000). ‘Infants preferences for familiarity and novelty during the course of visual processing’, Infancy, 1, pp. 491–507. Schiff, W. & Foulke, E. (1982). Tactile Perception: a sourcebook. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Online], Available at: http://books.google.com/books?id=UvP0O0al0aMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false SENSE (2011). Deafblindness and the other senses. [Online], Available at: http://www.sense.org.uk/help_and_advice/teaching+professionals/senses_and_deafblindness Webster, A. & Roe, J. (1998). Children with visual impairments: social interaction, language and learning. London: Routledge. Winnicott, D.W. (1980) Playing and Reality, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Read More