English as a Second Language at a Very Early Age - Literature review Example

Teaching Young Learners a Second Language: “The Younger the Better 0 Introduction 1 Background The need to learn a second language is important in a number of contexts. In this age of globalisation, with the world being one global village, it has become increasingly more important to communicate with people all over the world. English is a universal language and so it is important that in order to deal with people all over the world, especially the United States and the UK, knowledge of and the ability to converse in, write and read English. Additionally, Children as well as adults tend to find themselves in situations where a second language becomes important to survival, and so it is especially seen as a factor in the UK and the United States of America, two of the biggest markets in the world for goods and services. In order to communicate, the English Language is very important as it is universal and widely understood. The children that they bring to the USA and UK are therefore children with special needs for English language training. Furthermore, according to Encyclopaedia of the nation, approximately 45 million people visited the United States in 1998. Some came for Spain and other European countries, Mexico and Canada. The ones from Mexico and Europe will need to be able to communicate with various personnel, whether in hotels, or through other contact with peoples along the way, especially, those with another language. Also of importance is the number of visitors to other countries from the US who may need to visit Venezuela. Venezuela would need people who can communicate well with in English as most of these US tourists may not be able to speak another language. There is also the need for enhanced human relationships for which knowledge of at least one other language is critical. 1.2 Aim of Paper This paper looks at the much debated topic or as some would indicate “myth” that a child who starts learning English as a second language at a very early age has the capacity to do better than the child who starts later. 2.0 Literature Review 2.1 Younger is not necessarily better According to Grant (1995) a second language refers to the chronology of language acquisition. According to Cameron (2002, p. 13), the critical period hypothesis is the name given to the perspective that it is particularly effective to learn a second language before puberty. The reasons given include the fact that their brains still have the ability to use the mechanisms that allowed them to acquire their first language. The hypothesis further holds that older learners learn the language differently after they have passed that stage, in particular, the accent and so they can never achieve the same proficiency levels attained by younger children. This is a very strong statement and should not be taken as factual. Adults are just as or more capable than young learners. Circumstances alter cases and people are motivated by their needs. Children may be able to gain the accent quickly when they are in preschool and so they are not necessarily more enthusiastic but are just learning pronunciation and therefore appear to do better than older children and adults. It is essentially similar to learning a first language and so it is more applicable to bilingual children who learn two languages at the same time. In which case, they speak exactly like the natives. However, adults can gain the accent just as well in the same way that they speak English with an American or a British accent. There are so many variants of English in terms of accent, even the Britons do not all speak the same. So while it may be different for other languages like French and Spanish it is not quite the same for English. Cameron (2002, p. 13) points out that when the goal is to just simply to communicate, the benefits of starting to learn early are less obvious. According to Grant (1995) Longitudinal studies that were carried out by Collier (1989) indicates that it would take somewhere between five to ten years for persons learning a second language to speak as close as possible to native speakers. Children who migrate to UK and USA are sometimes, as a rule, placed in special classes so they can learn English; at least the minimal oral language skills that are seen as essential for them to enter regular classroom, for regular learners who either have English as a first language or have learnt it along with another language, simultaneously. Studies carried out on brain activity by a number of researchers including Kim et al (1997), as indicated by Cameron (2002), have discovered that brain activity of children who are learning two languages at the same time are different from those who start to learn a second language after age seven. The same part of the brain is used before a certain age to learn languages simultaneously while a different part is used to gain a second or third language. This therefore means that the learning is never the same. In an explanation of how the first language influences the second language, Cameron (2002) makes references to studies done by Bates and Whitney (1989) where they indicate how the ‘Competition Model’ of performance in linguistics explains the effects of first language acquisition on the subsequent development of the second language. Different languages have different formulations. In English we may say “The little girl is in a red hat” while in Spanish in would be formulated differently with little after the word girl. Cameron (2002) refers to a study by Bates et al (1984) which indicates that children become sensitive to the reliability of cues in their first language from early infancy. There are numerous examples that can be given. As a matter of fact, it is widely accepted that all other languages have well defined grammatical rules which English does not adhere to. In the same way that older learners would transfer strategies used in the first language which Carneron (2002) describes as L1, in order to make sense of L2 (the second language) is the same that young learners respond when faced with difficulties in formulating sentences. However, the older learners may have sufficient knowledge to understand that they do not have the right formulation. It means therefore that the young learners will definitely require more help than older ones who may look to various ways of finding the right order. Cameron (2002) also points out that cues are complicated by the age effect and refers to studies of immersion language learning where younger children from 7 to 8 years appears to focus on sound and music of utterance while children from 12 and 14 are more attentive to cues of word order. In order to demonstrate some of the difficulties faced by children in their quest to learn a second language Cameron (2002) indicates that children are much less able than adults to give ‘selective and prolonged attention’ to the characteristics of some learning tasks. They also face the possibility of being ‘diverted and distracted by others, which is the nature of children. Cameron (2002) also points to the work of Harley 1994; and Schmidt 1990 who indicates that children unlike adults seek to understand the new language in terms of the grammar of the old language and pay close attention to vocabulary in the new language that they are familiar with. This Cameron (2002) points out would therefore require further scaffolding (as pointed out in Bruner’s theory) from parents and teachers in order to make the task easier. As noted before some knowledge in terms of sentence formulation is not the same as in English and Cameron (2002) therefore indicates that the cues that need more attention will certainly depend on the first language of the learners. According to Cameron (2002) several studies have pointed to the influence of teaching on the leaning of a second language. If the teacher simply engages in question and answer rather than discourse with the learners then they will just be good at answering questions alone and nothing more. A number of studies that have been done indicate that learners reproduced the same type of language that is used by their teachers. It is therefore intuitive that those students who depend on their teachers and text, especially where it is particularly restrictive will not develop the full rage of the foreign language that is required for effectively conversing with others outside of the classroom situation. What is required is for learners to be able to talk at length in the first instance and then to subsequently write extensively in the second language. Cameron (2002) also points out that a number of advantages are being claimed for the introduction of foreign language in the primary years. However, Cameron was also quick to point out that experience in the UK approximately 20 years earlier found that it was not as positive as they had hoped. The UK has children from all parts of the world who do not have English as their first language. They include people from Asia, the Non-English Speaking Caribbean, the Middle East, Africa and all other parts of Europe. However, some of the problems seemed to be centred on the culture of these children, in that their parents and grandparents think that they will not be able to communicate with them once they learn English as they would gravitate more towards the English way of life. This was found in studies done in the USA by Grant (1995) and indicates that the extended family of children who learnt an second language from very early were no longer able to communicate with their grandparents who were very concerned about the impact that this would have on the family. According to Cameron (2002) most of the research that has been done was carried out in the United States of America where immersion teaching is used and where native speakers of the English Language are placed in the nurseries and infant schools. Cameron (2002) indicates that children who start early develop and maintain advantages in only some of the language skill areas. The studies also found that more benefits were to be gained from listening comprehension; and stated that in the long run pronunciation benefits. However, it was found that there were some restrictions to language learning in the real setting that will not necessarily apply to classroom learning. Cameron (2002) also refers to Harley et al (1995) who indicates that young children tend to learn the grammar for the second language more slowly than older learners as they make slower progress, even though they start relatively earlier. Even though learning a second language through immersion or as a subject several times a weak appears not to affect the balance of benefits. Cameron (2002) also indicates that both receptive and productivity skills will be higher for the learner who sits in a class several times a week. Additionally, knowledge of grammar which is linked to both cognitive and language development is likely to develop at a slower pace in younger children. In “Teaching Young Language Learners” Pinter (2006) looks at two extremes of younger learners and older learners. The features of the younger learners include the following: Children are basically at pre-school level or in the lower grades at primary school. Children cannot separate the “leaves from the trees”, they have a holistic view to language learning, even though they break down messages that have meaningful messages. They are neither aware of the learning process nor of themselves as language learners They are limited in terms of their reading and writing skills in their first language They are generally more concerned about themselves than they are about others around them. There knowledge of the world is limited in a number of ways They enjoy being fantasized, using their imagination and movement. According to Pinter (2006), the characteristics of older learners include the following. They are well established and sufficiently comfortable in their routines at school They have demonstrated an interest in analytical approaches which implies that they have an interest in the abstract language They have a certain level of awareness about their learning as language learners and otherwise. They have already developed their skills in reading and writing They are aware of others and their various points of view They are aware of the world around them and this gets better as they get older They are interested in real life issues This indicates that older children are more advanced and have the ability to handle the more important aspects of a second language, except in the area of pronunciation. Pinter (2006) sees listening and speaking as the most important skills in teaching English to young learners program. However, communicating in writing and being able to read is also equally important. An emphasis is also placed on learning to learn which underscores the importance of involving children in the decisions related to the learning process which is an important emphasis and seems to be focused on a child’s understanding of how they learn best. 2.2 Preschool years is the most appropriate time According to Vos (2008) the first three to four years of life is the best time for a child to learn another language. Vos (2008) also gives a number of reasons why this is so. They include: Leaning a language is a natural process when children are young Preschool years are vital years the development stages of the brain as noted in Dryden and Vos (1997) The models are young migrant children the developmental stages for learning languages has been confirmed by brain research The way in which a second or third language is taught to young children the importance of having fun Gardner’s multiple intelligences (1983 and 1998) According to Vos (2008) the more childlike we become in learning a language, the easier it is to learn it. Just by observing the way babies learn to talk indicates that they are natural learners. They learn to talk by only using the sounds and word that they gather from the environment, more so from those who take care of them: their parents and caregivers. Kotulak (qtd. in Vos, 2008) indicates that during the child’s first three years the foundations for thinking, language, vision, attitudes, aptitudes and other characteristics necessary to define the child are laid down. It would be a total waste if this natural ability is not utilised when it is just as easy as leaning the first. This is so because 50% of a child’s ability to learn is developed in the first years with another 30% being developed by the age of eight. It therefore means the activities done during early childhood years have the capacity to encourage early learning and development. What this means is that children form their pathways to learning in the brain. The pathways to the brain relate to the five senses. There are six of them – learning by sight, sound, taste, touch, smell, and doing. Everything an individual does later in life is based on the foundation laid during their early years. Vos (2008) also presents the development stages of the brain from the first month to age 12. In the first month the baby reacts to the environment in which it finds itself. Everything that the baby experiences is absorbed by the brain and stored in the memory cells. In the first six months the baby babbles using sounds from various languages. Babies discard languages that are not spoken in the immediate environment. In the first eight months the brain has about 1,000 trillion connections. These connections begin to decline unless stimulation through the senses occurs. By the age of ten only half of the connections are left. Vos (2008) describes the brain as a super-sponge up to the age of 12 and indicates that it is during this period that foundations are laid for language, vision, thinking, attitudes, aptitudes and other characteristics and at this point the window of opportunities close. It is therefore emphasised that it is easier to learn a second language during these crucial years. Vos (2008) uses migrant nursery’s in Sweden as children in these schools were speaking two to three languages fluently. Brain research is another area pointed out by Vos (2008). Children are born with approximately 100 billion brain cells with each making approximately 20,000 connections. The type of environment in which the child finds him or herself will determine whether these brain cells live or die. If the environment offers enrichment then the cells will survive. However, if it does not then the cells will certainly die. Vos (2008) defines an enriched environment as one in which a lot of sensory stimulation is provided. Rats have been used to test this process. However, rats are very different from human beings and should not be used as an example to indicate that the same thing happens to human beings. Additionally, human beings may be stimulated by different things from rats. Vos (2008) indicates that the way to teach a second or even a third language to a child is to talk to them from the beginning and let them know what is happening, what is being done. Since they learn by listening, seeing, imitating and practicing, they should be introduced to words that rhymes, songs, games, and counting in a second or third language. Plenty of tapes are useful when the teacher or parent is not able to speak the language themselves. Vos (2008) further strengthens the point by indicating that boarding a foreign student may help in some way and most importantly fun is key to learning so children should be made to enjoy it. Vos (2008) reviewed the work of a number of researchers and indicates that leaning is easier if it is made emotional or fun. The neurons in the brain will die if they are not being used in other parts of the brain and so in order to keep the brain healthy it needs to be stimulated by something. Learning a foreign language would help to stimulate that part of the brain where language is learnt. Vos (2008) also points out that the thinking takes place in the cortex of the brain which contains a number of intelligence centres. Vos points to Howard Gardner’s work as it relates to multiple intelligences. In extending the thought that the brain will die if they are not being used, I believe that the finding is questionable. How sooner than leaving secondary education do we find that adults who did not perform well in their primary and secondary years of schooling are able to pick up what’s left of themselves and perform much better than those whom it was first thought were extremely bright children. Does this mean that the brain dies and is revived again by some miraculous means? I think not as adults have started at late stages to learn languages and end up performing so well as translators, tour guides for foreign visitors and diplomats. It is just about the effort that is put into learning and how much the individual wants to learn, to excel and prove to others that “I can do it if I put my mind to it.” Gardner (1998) has spent a lot of time analysing the brain and came up with multiples intelligences. He indicates that humans have several types of intelligences, logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic and existential intelligence. Gardener suggests that every child has at least one of these intelligences and therefore should be able to learn. In applying this to learning a second or even a third language, once the teacher identifies these intelligences and incorporates it into the teaching process then a way can be found to reach all learners. Some students will therefore learn by doing, some will have to be reinforced through the use of pictures and sound, games, rhythm and music, dancing or other forms of body movements, talking with each other, and those engaging in knowledge transfer. It may be easier to learn a second language in the pre-school years. However, at this stage most children cannot read and therefore only the speaking and listening aspect of the learning process is applicable them. Whereas with older children; say 12 to 14 the other aspects of learning such as reading and writing may be non-existent. Babies talk before they are able to read and write. This therefore indicates that older children and even adults have an advantage over preschool children in learning a second language. According to Scovel (1999) and others have noted the danger of double semi-lingualism for children who start learning a second language early, wherein full proficiency is developed in neither of the too languages. This indicates that pushing the children too hard too early may result in serious problems for them. As is normal children need proper and adequate guidance, especially at a younger stage. Scaffolding is very important in taking the child to the next level and not allowing confusion with things that are not so easily understood. So while preschool is a good time it has its own share of problems. Conclusion Based on the literature review it is quite obvious that except for the accent which is particularly easier for the younger learners to adapt if they are immersed into it earlier enough, the younger learners are in no way more effective in grasping a second language than older learners. They are faced with some difficulties like being affected by the clues that are learnt from the acquisition of the first language which, they can only move away from through scaffolding. It can therefore be seen that Piaget’s theory which suggests that certain abilities are unavailable to children before they are 11 years are more serves its purpose since there are some things that a child below the age of 11 may not be able to do with a second language and which is essential before the claim can be asserted. This relates to not just being able to talk and listen but being able to read and write the language at a certain level which a preschooler will not be able to do neither in the first nor the second language. Though brain studies have found some support especially at preschool age, it is well known that children will learn to speak any language once they are exposed to it when they are learning their first language. However, there is a limit to their capabilities and this is where being older becomes dominant and enforces the importance of skills that are only available to an adult. Circumstances differ and when children learn more than one language together, whether it be bilingual (two) or multi-lingual (more than two) this is a different scenario from learning a second language as defined in the introduction. It is true however, that further studies are required to determine what is the truth and why the studies might have been different if the methods used in the classroom were more purposeful and strategic resulting in young learners who are able to enter into a discourse that would provide the basis for supporting the widely held view, that ‘younger is better’. Most of the studies noted finds that there is nothing conclusive to support the slogan “the younger the better” as it is not particularly well founded in terms of children learning a foreign language. As a matter of fact Pinter (2006) and Cameron (2002) have provided resources in their books and are therefore trying to explore ways of helping teachers to find new ways to teach learners a second language effectively. It is really the methodology that is important and not really the age per se. However, the older learners have a clear advantage over young learners. References Cameron, L. (2002). Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge University Press: UK Encyclopaedia of the Nations. (n.d.) United States of America: Tourism. Retrieved: http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Americas/United-States-of-America-TOURISM.html. Last accessed 30th Apr 2011 Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind. The theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books Grant, R. (1995) Meeting the Needs of Young Second Language Learners In: Garcia, E and McLaughlin, B. with Spodek, B. and Seracho, O. (ed) Meeting the Challenge of Linguistic and Cultural Diversity in Early Childhood Education. Yearbook in Early Childhood Education. Vol. 6. USA: Teaching College Press Pinter, A. (2006). Teaching Young Language Learners. Oxford University Press. Oxford: UK Scovel, T. (1999). The younger the better myth and bilingual education In: Gonzalez, R (ed) Language Ideologies: Critical Perspectives: National Council of Teachers of English. Urbana: Illinois. Retrieved: http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED447481.pdf. Last Accessed 30th Apr 2011 Vos, J. (n.d.) Can Preschool Children be Taught a Second Language. Earlychildhood News. Retrieved: http://www.earlychildhoodnews.com/earlychildhoodarticle_view.aspx?ArticleId=60. Last accessed 30th Apr 2011 Read More