Age and the Acquisition of English as a Foreign Language by Mara del Pilar - Book Report/Review Example

AGE AND ACQUISITION OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE Contents Sr.# Topic Pg General Overview 2 2. Discussion and Analysis 3 3. Assumptions about the background of readers 10 4. Noteworthy Articles 11 5. Articles which I find lacking 13 6. Evaluation Overview 15 References 16 Note: This table of contents is made specifically for your own purpose, in order to enable you to quickly scan through the report and ensure that all the listed instructions were duly incorporated. 1. General Overview A growing importance of teaching foreign language in schools has been recently observed in several countries. Governments are taking active measures and implementing effective policies addressed at imparting education in second language to children in schools and has also reduced the age criteria for learning foreign language. This has facilitated researchers and educationists to focus on the ‘age factor’ and analyze its significance and relevance in terms of acquiring foreign / second language skills. The book “Age and Acquisition of English as a Foreign Language” by María del Pilar is based on the criticality of learning English as a second language and addresses various issues related to language learning particularly focusing on the relevance and significance of the "age factor" and its consequent impact on acquisition of critical foreign language learning skills. The book primarily studies the learning abilities within bilingual communities in a formal instruction setting and also presents an overview of the English language as a third language in two bilingual communities. This book offers critical aspects concerned with language planning and concentrates on the significance and contribution of the learners age in foreign language learning. About the Author: The author, María del Pilar is an Associate Professor of English linguistics at the University of Basque Country, Spain and has conducted in depth research in the field of language studies. Her works essentially focus on acquisition of second language skills and other critical elements associated with developing and acquiring such skills, for instance, language syntax, phonetics, intonation etc. in English and Spanish, from a generative as well as an interactionist perspective. 2. Discussion and Analysis: The ‘age factor’ has at all times been one of the chief issues in terms of research and investigations focused on the acquisition of second / foreign language. Nonetheless, the focal point has now shifted from: investigating the question of whether there exists a decisive phase, as observed during the 1970s and 80s, to: the suitable time to commence education in L2. Such a tendency is predominantly applicable in foreign language acquisition perspectives across Europe and visibly apparent in countries like Spain where the age of instruction for teaching English was drastically reduced from 11 years of age to 8 years by the Reforma. It is hence, highly likely that advance improvements might press forward the starting age for learning foreign language to age 6. Although these alterations fail to consider the conclusions from current research, they do, however, replicate the common apprehensions regarding the significance of languages, particularly English, in our every day lives. This book review is, as a result, of supreme significance to teachers as well as students of English as a second / foreign language. It accumulates certain chosen contributions in two parts. The first part deals with "Theoretical Issues" discussed in three chapters which presents a general idea about the role of age in learning languages. The second part on the other hand, titled "Fieldwork in Bilingual Communities" - discusses numerous aspects explored by groups of researchers at the University of the Basque Country1 and the University of Barcelona2. Chapter 1 in part 1 titled “Critical Period or General Age Factor(s)” written by David Singleton provides a methodical introduction to the CPH as well as the theory of CP in FLA. Singleton’s evaluations on the CP in SLA concerning the accomplishment of native-like expertise, the natural acquirement of an L2 prior to the CP, knowledge and processing systems, and ultimately, the naturalistic and tutoring surroundings. He states that although the impact of age is apparent in the studies, the result of a CP in the customary perception of the theory is not always comprehensible. The author quotes the work of Penfield & Roberts (1959) to assert his views: “for the purposes of learning languages, the human brain becomes progressively stiff and rigid after the age of nine" (Pilar, Lecumberri, 2003, Pp, 4). The disparity in conclusions of various studies conducted by different researchers has led them to believe that there might be certain other justifications for the impact of age on learning. The author concludes the chapter with a summary of four crucial elements namely, the motivational factors, cross linguistic factors, educational factors and general cognitive factors. The next chapters, titled "Phonological Acquisition in Multilingualism" and "Know your Grammar: Where the Knowledge of Syntax and Morphology in an L2 Reveals about the Critical Period for Second / Foreign Language Acquisition" by Jonathan Leather and Stefka, Marinova - Todd, respectively present detailed discussion on the phonological acquisition in multilingualism as well as grammar and CP. These chapters by far, provide an exceptional framework for linguistic studies and research as these articles move beyond the conventional purview of discussion and analysis of common and germane features discussed broadly in the introductory chapter to aspects which have recently been acknowledged as crucial in language studies. Such a well thought of structure provides the readers with logical account of the ensuing chapters discussed under the heading fieldwork studies covered in the next part of the book. In the second chapter, Leather offers comprehensive explanations of phonological acquisition with respect to age. The author states that "in the many societies where language blends are abundant and mother tongues lack the norms that explicitly define western standard languages, it is often far from clear how to identify what language is being spoken at any particular moment" (Pilar, Lecumberri, 2003, Pp. 23). The arguments and descriptions offered by Leather have a striking similarity with the ideas proposed by Singleton, in the first chapter. Like Singleton, Leather claims that in order to elucidate the variations observed among learners of a second language, the age factor must be taken into consideration, since there is adequate evidence which suggests that the learners who commence foreign language training, at an early age, have a foreign accent while the adult learners who learn the language at a relatively later age, have native - like pronunciations. The third chapter on Know Your Grammar, by Stefka Marinova – Todd, offers a very understandable and inclusive evaluation of studies conducted for and against the CPH in the field of morphosyntax. The author claims that there exists adequate indication to support the thought that although younger learners accomplish considerable achievement relatively faster than that compared with adult learners, morphosyntax helps the adult learners to achieve near native level of language skills. The author has talked at length about this concept with regards to language acquisition. He argues that “the age of arrival in the second language environment has proven to be merely one among many factors that mutually contribute to determine the ultimate attainment in an L2. Recent research points to the importance of factors other than age of arrival and emphasizes the necessity of focusing carefully on developing foreign language programs that provide the best environment in which learners of all ages can efficiently utilize their cognitive abilities in order to achieve the highest possible proficiency in their L2s” (Pp. 59). However, it must be noted that the relationship between attainment of native like proficiency and SLA, which forms one of the critical aspects of this chapter, is currently heavily debated and its relevance is being critically challenged. The fourth chapter on “The Influence of Age on the Acquisition of English: General Proficiency, Attitudes and Code Mixing” by Jasone Cenoz provides an enlightenment on the state of English as a third language in the Basque Country, where it was launched as a pilot project in a kindergarten. The article summarizes findings and outcomes of language learners with respect to age, from the studies conducted by the author herself, with a group comprising of 135 learners all of whom were exposed to equivalent hours of training but with varied ages. Age, in this chapter is evaluated with respect to the rate of acquisition, which in turn is calculated by a series of tests which reveals the participant’s English skill, approach and inspiration – which was calculated through information collected through circulation of questionnaires among the participants; and ultimately to code – mixing which was calculated in terms of verbal construction. The author claims that “The early introduction of a foreign language in the school curriculum increases the total amount of time that learners have at their disposal" He further justifies the comment by quoting the work of Heighington, 1996: "They (young children) have no awkwardness or inhibitions with the new language and are not at all bothered about making mistakes. Most significant of all, they soak up new language and ideas, rather as sponge does water" (Pp. 77). The studies revealed that older learners were able to achieve better results as compared to the younger learners in most of the procedures applied for measuring proficiency and the differences so observed, are statistically noteworthy. On the other hand, the results varied significantly in terms of inspiration and approach to learning, whereby the younger learners displayed greater enthusiasm, positive attitudes and higher levels of motivation as compared to older learners. The studies conducted by the author reveals that the older learners tend to code – mix more as compared to the younger learners. Chapter 5 titled “Age, Length of Exposure, and Grammaticality Judgements in the Acquisition of English as a Foreign Language”by María del Pilar García Mayo, begins with a concise yet comprehensive assessment of age and subsequently centers on the grammaticality of the task, which is further used to estimate the target – like performance in the study as well as on the linguistic understanding of issues associated with this task. Three critical research questions are debated in this article, which include deliberations over the whether the extent of coverage manipulates the target – like performance, whether the previous experience entails more target – like performance and ultimately whether the higher cognitive progress can be associated with higher levels of metalinguistic consciousness. The author established that a longer duration of exposure to a foreign language results in better outcomes. The other research questions mentioned in the study however tends to affirm the fact that older learners were able to produce better results as compared to the younger learners and demonstrated a better understanding of the language. The sixth chapter on “English FL Sounds in School Learners of Different Ages” by María Luisa García Lecumberri and Francisco Gallardo provide a comprehensible appraisal of the ages of learners and their abilities with regard to pronunciations. The author presented a study whereby the participants were grouped according to their relative of ages of exposure to the language and who had learned the language for the same duration of time. The instruments used as measurements of assessment of individual skills included: story telling and re-telling, as well as sound perception tests, which were cautiously framed and executed. The outcomes revealed that the oldest learners varied drastically from the rest of the group in terms of both use and knowledge of vowels, consonants, pronunciations as well as sound perception. The older learners were established as relatively more intelligent and having more TL like accents as opposed to the younger lot. The most significant part of this chapter was the conclusions of the research which revealed that early exposure to a foreign language does not warranty FL sound acquisition, particularly in a formal setting and the other relevant factors such as NL influence, variety of strategies used for understanding the cognitive development of learners as well as the types of inputs received by the learners must be taken into consideration. The seventh chapter titled “Maturational Constraints on Foreign-language Written Production” by David Lasagabaster and Aintzane Doiz seeks to investigate the relevance of the age factor, in written production. This is done by analyzing a predefined set of compositions written by learners belonging to three different age groups and with varied backgrounds i.e. comprising of those who were bilingual or monolingual. The eighth chapter on “Variation in Oral Skills Development and Age of Onset” by Carmen Muñoz comprises of a detailed investigation on the age factor as well as other critical issues including rate and attainment of foreign language learning and literacy related L2 and communication skills. Muñoz’s research on presents an enlightening account of oral as well as aural communicative skills of learners with regard to foreign language and a detailed study of the relationship between duration of study and its impact on language development. For the purpose of conducting this research the author collected data samples at three different points of time from participants who had language proficiency in Catalan and Spanish. The author affirmed that learners who had late exposure to a foreign language referred to as ‘late starters’ displayed better oral productive skills as compared to the early starters who were exposed to the language as early as 8 years of age. Finally the ninth chapter on “Learner Strategies: A Cross – sectional and Longitudinal Study of Primary and High School EFL Learners by Mia Victori and Elsa Tragant, offers new perspectives related to learner strategies and the role of age through a systematically designed study. The outcomes consequent to the study were derived from a series of preliminary studies conducted by the authors focusing on older learners between the age group of 12 and 14 as well as those aged 10, 14 and 17. The outcomes derived there from were used to design innovative learning strategies. 3. Assumptions about the Background of Readers This book could be used by teachers imparting foreign language education in schools as well as researchers as a tool for preliminary study for further research. The first part of the book is wholly dedicated to theoretical issues. The complexity and depth of the chapters averts general readers from using it as a source of guidance or reference for enhancing their language skills. The underlying assumptions about the background of the target audience are that they belong to the education field, i.e., work in the capacity of teachers or lecturers with regard to imparting training in second / foreign language acquisition or they are researchers, theorists or linguists interested in carrying out research or studies in language skills with diverse perspectives. This book, thus, is not intended for general use, as the criticality of the terms used and the concepts discussed are specific to the field of linguistic study. It basically addresses the issues and concerns faced in elementary and kindergarten schools and can be used as a handbook by professionals involved in teaching second language in such a setting. The second part of the book is mainly comprised of fieldwork studies which discusses in detail, the diverse areas of research undertaken by the authors as well as the outcomes of such research. This can prove to be very useful by other researchers who may use these studies as a base for conducting further research. 4. Noteworthy Articles The articles that I found to be most remarkable are the ones mentioned in part 2 of the book i.e. Fieldwork in Bilingual Communities. It provides a detailed analysis of the outcomes of the current research work based on age and other correlated factors related to acquisition of foreign language in a given setting. The selection of topics covered under this section is outstanding and comprehensive. Of the second part, the most noteworthy articles in my view include: chapters 4, 5 and 8. Chapter 4 on The Influence of Age on the Acquisition of English: General Proficiency, Attitudes and Code Mixing offer interesting perspectives regarding acquisition of foreign language with respect to younger learners. He claims that younger learners do not code-mix more than older learners and accepts the fact that the study in itself is not all conclusive and expresses his views regarding the need for further in depth studies using the outcomes derived from the research to arrive at adequate longitudinal results. The research findings provided by the author enables further research based on various subjects conducted across diverse schools, as this study was limited to one single school. The clear and lucid presentations of this study facilitate an excellent opportunity for debates and discussion on the topic and offer a wider scope for future studies. The fifth chapter on Age, Length of Exposure and Grammaticality Judgments in the Acquisition of English as a Foreign Language is another interesting chapter which provides remarkable observations in the field of language acquisition skills based on research conducted in Barcelona. The research which was focused on learner’s age stated that the older learners perform better as compared to the younger learners in terms of a range of skills including linguistic awareness and vocabulary as opposed to those learners who have had the opportunity of learning the language at an early age. The study was developed to facilitate an effective comparison between the participants in accordance with their age of exposure. The participants were ranged from 8 year olds to 12 year olds and the study was based on the longitudinal analysis of the above age groups divided into two distinct categories. Such studies based on longitudinal analysis are rare which adds to the uniqueness and significance of this research. Thus, this chapter provides various new and radical observations based on innovative methods of analysis and hence offers a wider and a daringly different perspective than those presented in previous researches conducted in this behalf. Moreover, the uniqueness of this study also facilitates other researchers to use it as a base for further studies and enable the development of newer and better strategies to assist second language learners in having a better grasp of the foreign language. Finally, the eighth chapter on “Variation in Oral Skills Development and Age of Onset” provides a comprehensive study as well as a threefold investigation of the written production; a holistic examination conducted with the aid of two assessors, a quantitative study, as well as an error analysis. The comprehensiveness of the study covers almost all the critical aspects related to linguistic studies especially with respect to the acquisition of a second / foreign language in an enclosed setting. In continuation with earlier studies conducted in the Basque Country as well as in Catalonia, the outcomes signify that older learners tend to pull off better scores in terms of holistic as well as in the quantitative assessment. Furthermore, the error analysis indicates that the three groups are prone to diverse types of errors, which according to the authors is an outcome of deprived linguistic capability of the learners as also the inadequacy in terms of knowledge in text among the younger students. The error analysis also indicates that the reason for poor performance with respect to older participants was mainly on account of the complexity and time-span in the older group, as well as the intermediate group. The chapter concludes with wide range of motivating educational suggestions which is in turn one of the major attractions and the strongest points of this chapter. 5. Articles which I find lacking This first part of the book offers the obligatory theoretical background and provides remarkable contexts for facilitating additional research. However, it is conspicuous to observe that, apart from a solitary case in the second chapter (in the first part of this book), the general conclusions offered in part 2 have not in general been taken into consideration in the theoretical part. There is a serious lack of consistency between the two parts i.e. the theoretical part and the fieldwork and analysis part. The studies, should have been interconnected with each other, to provide a better understanding of the concepts discussed, in theory and in practice i.e., in the first and the second part respectively. Also a common final conclusion would have sufficed to provide an all encompassing book which offers an in depth theoretical analysis as well as a comprehensive study of on field experiments conducted by the researchers. Another aspect of the book which I found to be particularly lacking in the first part of the book was the lack of concise definitions of the key terms and concepts discussed in theoretical context. Precise definitions of the thoughts, theories, ideas, or models discussed would have lent more credibility and weight to the chapters mentioned in the first part. Besides, definitions are of critical significance in every field of study as it facilitates lexical competence and are inevitable in order to establish a theoretical foundation for research on linguistic studies. It is thus, of critical significance for authors to clearly organize and clarify approaches and definitions of key terms and concepts as proposed by various authors, in order to assess different approximations to the problem being analyzed. Although all the three chapters are well designed and comprises of adequate theories and prior research work, the aspect that I found missing was the lack of examples. The theories could have been better explained with the help of practical in class examples, real life experiences, as well as students’ reactions. Also, the study could have been more interesting if the articles were linked together so as to give a perception of a logical flow of ideas. Interconnectedness also would have facilitated better understanding of the views expressed by the authors. Ultimately, the theories should have been supported by a wide range of examples from across the world to give a fair overview to the readers. 6. Evaluation Overview In conclusion the book provides a fascinating account of the relationship between one of the most critical aspects of foreign language learning i.e. the age of the learner. The presentation of the articles / chapters provided in the book is excellent and the topics discussed hold critical significance to a wide range of scholarly audience including the teachers of foreign languages, researchers, theorists and to some extent, university students. It throws light on a variety of issues such as: How is the concept of second language learning related to age? What do the theories tell us about the obscure ideas of knowledge? What are the fundamental assumptions of studying English as a foreign language? etc. Different times entail novel social relations which also disclose novel ways of representing the world, and presume new means to facilitate social members to survive the demands of the new social needs. Language, as a social communication tool, would pose a significant opportunity to the impending generations in the years to come, especially in the dawn of the new era where geographical boundaries are fast becoming blurred as continents are being swept away in the tide of rapid technological innovations. In the midst of such uncertainties, education is a futuristic tool that has the strength to reduce or eliminate such complexities faced in a pluralistic world and hence should be the main concern of educationists and researchers. Textbook such as these, have the potential to become major allies in the process of spreading awareness about complexities of notions and ideologies. References: Pilar, M., Lecumberri, M., (2003) Age and the Acquisition of English as a Foreign Language, Multilingual Matters Read More