The Impact of the 1870, 1902 & 1918 Education Acts in the UK - Research Paper Example

Education Acts Introduction Beginning with the Education Act of 1870 through the Education Act of 1918 the United Kingdom demonstrated a significantamount of change and reform. The complex interaction of social, economic, and even theological concerns are fundamentally related to the creation and implementation of these education acts. While they were supported by the majority in power, they were oftentimes bitterly rejected by opposing party members, and in certain instances functioned to alter reforms made by the previous governing bodies. This essay considers the effects of the Educations Acts of 1870, 1902, and 1918, and examines their complex interaction with the social and political concerns of the culture in which they emerged. Education Act of 1870 I. Historical Background The British educational system was traditionally reserved for members of the social elite. In the middle ages, universities were largely the domain of ruling class boys, although a small number of boys of lower social classes were included. In the fifth century, some grammar schools offered teaching to the poor, but again, education was largely reserved for upper class males. By the seventeenth century, schools had begun to resemble the modern system, but many people did not approve of educating the lower classes, fearing that it would "make the working poor discontented with their lot" (Chitty 2004, cited in Gillard), and education for the poor consisted largely of moral, rather than intellectual, teachings. The Industrial Revolution saw a great change in the national education system, as industry needed workers with more advance reading skills. (Davin 1996) Even then, opposition to educating the poor was intense. Thus Tory MP Davies Giddy famously noted "giving education to the laboring classes of the poor ... would teach them to despise their lot in life, instead of making them good servants in agriculture and other laborious employments to which their rank in society has destined them; instead of teaching them the virtue of subordination, it would render them factious and refactory (sic)... it would enable them to read seditious pamphlets, vicious books and publications against Christianity" (cited in Gillard). In addition, attempts at mass education for the poor were stymied by conflict between religious and social groups. In the mid-1800s, education in England was divided by class structure, and students were schooled according to whether they belonged to the masses, the middle class, or the higher classes. The 1870 Elementary Education Act, however, demanded universal education for all children from the ages of 5-13. In great part the 1870 Act was developed by Robert Morant. A former teacher, he eventually joined a research council known as the Privy Council on Education. This council reported directly to the Board of Education, where Morant would eventually become secretary in 1903. It was his work and ideas with the Privy Council that contributed in great part to the ideas in the 1870 Education Act, and he also worked tirelessly to see that they were implemented successfully. II. Principles and Effects of Act In poor districts citizens could petition the education board to investigate whether there was adequate population for education and provisions to establish institutions. In areas where deemed necessary a school board would be established that would investigate these concerns. In these situations the school board would then provide elementary education for children ages 5-13. The boards also had the ability to develop a law that could then be proposed to Parliament that would make school attendance in the district mandatory. Indeed, 40% of the schools became compulsory. The board members could agree to pay for children to attend Church related schools; however, religious teaching was restricted to non-denominational or no-religion at all. Parents could also decide to remove their children from religious schools. The effects of the 1870 education act were such that great amounts of schools were constructed in the proceeding decade. Indeed, nearly 3000-4000 schools were created between 1870 and 1880. While rural districts preferred to have their children work in agriculture, in industrialized regions the districts were increasingly popular. The greatest tension experienced with the act came about as a result of the complex interaction of political and religious elements, as they disagreed on the act’s fundamental tenants. III. Social Ramifications On becoming Prime Minister in 1868 Gladstone had a ‘mission to pacify Ireland’. Gladstone who approved of what was done left the details of the bill to his ministers whilst he was engaged in the pacification of Ireland, which he thought would be achieved by reforms of land, religion and education. A major cause of upset among Liberal supporters was minister Forster’s 1870 Education Act as it failed to provide the system of free, national and secular education that the Nonconformists were committed. The nonconformists were a key pillar of support, within the Liberal coalition, so they were not happy when the act seemed to favour Anglicans as it increased their state grant and to obtain some measure of rate aid as well. The non-conformists have their own pressure group called the National Education League founded in 1869 by Joseph Chamberlain and a group of radicals. Their contempt for the 1870 Act led the League to become more political and more extreme. Chamberlain wrote ‘the great principal of Religious equality must be accepted as part of the Programme of any Party which seeks our support and alliance. The “Nonconformist Revolt” long threatened has begun’. Religious disunity was rife within the Liberal Party; it has therefore been argued that the main reason for the collapse of the First Liberal Administration was religious tensions created by and within the Liberal Party. The intensification of the tension was brought about in early 1871 when the Liberation Society launched its campaign for the disestablishment of the Church in England as had been so successful in Ireland. Clause 25 of the Education Act which required School Boards to pay for pauper children to go to a school of their parents choice including denominational schools, was denounced by John Bright in a speech to his constituents in October 1873 this was then repudiated by Forster in Liverpool a few days later. The Liberal Party was confused, disunited and in the Parliamentary Liberal Party and government was in despair. It could be argued that it was the Liberal association with disestablishment and opposition to religious education in schools because of non-conformist and Radical pressure that lost the election as the country was fearful of these forces in the party. It was however probably the rise of the working classes in strength and influence that led to the disenchantment with Gladstonian Liberalism. The disunity of the Liberal Party and its lack of organisation compared to its opponents exacerbated the Liberals difficult situation and so it was inevitable they would lose power. Education Act of 1902 I. Historical Background The Education Act of 1902 was an act passed by the United Kingdom’s Parliament. At the time the Parliament was controlled by the Conservative Party and this underlined many of the tenants contained within the act. It affected education throughout England and Wales. The inclusion of Wales is a notable element as Scottish education had previously been under the control of the Scotch Education Department. (Bagley 1969) The 1902 act was developed by Conservative Party member Arthur Balfour and caused a significant amount of dissention among Liberal and Non-Conformists. II. Reaction to Education Act of 1870 In great part the Education Act of 1902 was constructed in response to the Education Act of 1870. the Education Act of 1870 was viewed by conservatives as being formed by radicals that were elected by ratepayers throughout the disenfranchised districts; they believed that the 1870 act allowed non-conformists and socialists to usurp control of the educational establishment in the United Kingdom. III. Effects of the Education Act of 1902 The Education Act of 1902 functioned to repeal the 2,568 school boards that had been established by the Education Act of 1870. This became known as the Cockerton Judgment. Instead, the domain of these regions became the area of the local counties and boroughs. The county and borough control become consolidated into Local Education Authorities (LEDs). The Local Education Authorities were given the new ability to develop secondary and technical schools. (Brehony 1994) They were given the ability to take control of elementary education and to plan for the curriculum development and other similar aspects of school development. The 1902 act also repealed the power of institutions to enact mandatory attendance through School Attendance Committees. The act functioned to bring voluntary schools under the control of the government and supplied funding to them. Financial aid was also given adults that ultimately contributed to an increase and improvement in teacher training and technical schools. As expected there was considerable objection to the Education Act of 1902 from members of the opposing party. Non-conformists, as well as members of the Liberal and Labour parties launched widespread political campaigns against the conservative reforms contained within the 1902 act. The National Passive Resistance Committee was formed by John Clifford, who objected to the Education Act of 1902 on a number of reasons. He gave the specific objections, “(1) the rate aid was being used to support the teaching of religious views to which some rate-payers were opposed; (2) sectarian schools, supported by public funds, were not under public control; (3) teachers in sectarian schools were subject to religious tests” (Brehoney, pg. 180) As one can see, Clifford’s objections are greatly linked to Conservative Objections that were raised against the 1870 Education Act. In this respect, the two acts were divided greatly along religious lines and the extent to which education should be an element of secular or non-secular ideology. It’s been noted that the school board schools had been outperforming the Anglican schools that existed prior to the 1870 Education Act. In attempting to promote the Church schools, the Conservative Party attempted to correct this imbalance and alter the types of education that was being delivered in the school board schools. (Maclure 1990) The main strategy of the National Passive Resistance Committee was to convince the Non-Conformists and liberal supporters to remain non-compliant with payment of the education rate. This strategy experienced relative levels of success, and over 150 people were imprisoned for refusing the pay taxes associated with the Education Act of 1902. In great part sentimental leveled against the 1902 Education Act contributed to the replacement of the Conservative Party by the Liberals in the 1906 elections. While Non-Conformists and Liberal Party members had hoped that the power change would result in reforms in the 1902 Education Act, there were minimal reforms instituted. Instead, reform attempts in both 1906 and 1908 were thwarted by the House of Lords. Education Act of 1918 The Education Act of 1918 followed the previous United Kingdom educational acts in instituting significant reforms to the educational establishment and reacting against previous education reforms. As the 1918 Act was largely constructed by Herbert Fisher, it became known as the Fisher Act. The 1918 act amended previously developed provisions from the 1870 Education Act that set the age of attendance at government funded schools up to 13. With the Education Act of 1918 the age was raised to 14, with increased plans to expand and extend varying types of tertiary education. The 1918 Act much like its 1902 predecessor functioned to increased funding for teacher training. (Morrish 1970) As a result, the professional associations of teachers greatly supported the bill. The act also functioned to increase a number of supplementary services through funding within these state supported schools. These services largely focused around medical support, in the structure of medical inspection, nursery schools, and centres for pupils with special needs. In great part the Education Act of 1918 was similar to a bill that had been implemented in 1917; some alterations had been made, particularly in administrative functions, as well as making it’s the authority of the local education boards to provide for a national system of education that allowed for progressive development and comprehensive organization under the Education Board. (Morrish 1970) The United Kingdom in the 1920s was a period of great change and transformation. Britain had just finished their participation in World War I, and their economy was in a state of transition. Industries that had previously been staples of the U.K. economy were no longer effective and depression and unemployment become commonplace, it wasn’t until the 1930s that things changed. As a result, one of the most notable characteristics of the 1918 Act became its concern with teacher training and increased pay. The professional teacher associations believed that the act would function not only to support increased teacher training, but also function to increase teacher salaries. (Maclure 1990) Conclusion In conclusion, the Education Acts of 1870, 1902, and 1918 demonstrate the evolution of the political and cultural forces shaping the United Kingdom. The Education Act of 1870 functioned to empower impoverished districts through granting rural districts funding to institute public education for children aged 5-13. In great part, the complex interaction between secular and non-secular forces and the extent to which funding should be allocated for denominational schools caused controversy as secular groups thought it an assault on their values. The 1902 Act was then in great part a Conservative response to the 1870 Act, and it repealed a number of what were deemed ‘radical’ reforms. Finally, the 1918 Education Act extended the age of state-funded education to from 13 to 14, and implemented a number of supplementary programs in state-funded schools. It’s emergence in a time of transition and unemplyoment in 1920s Britain also highlighted the support it offered for increased teacher training and salaries. Bibliography Bagley, J J & Bagley A J, (1969), The state and education in England and Wales, 1833-1968, London, Macmillan Brehony, K. J. (1994). "The School Masters Parliament: the origins and formation of the Consultative Committee of the Board of Education 1868-1916." History of Education 23(2): 171-193 Davin, A. (1996) Growing Up Poor. Home, School and Street in London 1870-1914, London: Rivers Oram Press Dent H C, (1970) Century of Growth in English Education, London, Longman Dent, H C, (1982), Education in England and Wales, Hodder & Stoughton, Gallard, P. (1990). Britain in the 19th Century H. Martin The Age of Improvement A. Briggs The Forging of the Modern State E. Evans Gladstone Disraeli and Later Victorian Politics. Oxford University Press. Gordon, Peter & Lawtion, Denis, (1979), Curriculum Change in the 19th & 20th Centuries, Hodder & Stoughton Hurt, J. (1979) Elementary Schooling and the Working Classes 1860-1918, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Maclure, S, (1990) A History of Education in London 1870-1990, London, Penguin Morrish, I, (1970) Education Since 1800, London, Allen & Unwin Tomlinson, Sally, (2005), Education in a post-welfare society, second edition, Maidenhead, OUP Read More