Effective Teaching of Writing to Children as Writers - Research Paper Example

CHILDREN AS ISSUES RELATING TO EFFECTIVE TEACHING OF WRITING Introduction This paper aims to examine critically the issue relating to the effective teaching of writing at both key stages, with children are writers. It shall focus on how children become writers by utilizing different text types. It shall also emphasize on the marking criteria according to the New Primary Framework, the Old Literacy Strategy and the National Curriculum Level descriptors for writing. Teaching faces several challenges with its modification, allowing it to be a satisfying profession. It is important that the teacher is able to bring knowledge across children in order to ensure a meaningful learning. Books are to be subject to enquiry and children must grasp their essences in the most effective way. It is said the grasping a meaning of the book is the ultimate purpose for reading, and children should not merely focus on what it says but on what it means (Flower and Hayes, 1984). The National Literacy Strategy is said to have achieved a great deal since its introduction in the autumn of 1998. Thousands of head teachers, teachers, and teaching assistants consistently carried out provision for the teaching and learning literacy in primary schools, making more sense to learners than was previously the case (Anwyll, 2001). The strategy is considered a tribute to the work of teachers in KS1 and children’s foundation stage in which the basis for expectations of continuing improvement is upon the time when children reach the end of KS2 and move on into secondary schools (Anwyll, 2001). In this paper, the key stages that will be subject to critical analysis are the stages involving children as writers. It is posited that children tend to write as they speak when they begin to write. Though this may be the case, spoken language is different from written language in several ways, normally pushed by the permanence of the written word, the necessity to be concise and the often separation of the reader from the writer in time and space. More explicit grammatical structures and other organisational features are used by writers in their pursuit to communicate ideas, which are not the case with speakers whose reliance is on context, facial expressions, and pauses (Department for Education and Employment, 200, p. 8). It has been a pursuit of the new Primary Framework that the literacy of children is ensured alongside effective means on how to make children writers. The creation of children writers and the specified processes that goes with it is said to heighten the standard of school curricula aiming to raise the writing and language skills of children. Critical Examination of the Issues Relating to the Effective Teaching of Writing As this paper is concerned with how children develop as writers, it is important to include the stages involved in this process and the issues relating to the effective teaching of writing. The key to this development is the ability of the teacher to support young writers since writing demands reflection and restructuring of ideas in a relatively abstract form even at the simplest level (Department for Education and Employment, 200, p. 14). There is a sequence in which children writers must build around, enabling them to concentrate on certain aspects of writing without the teacher’s need of dealing with all the others simultaneously, allowing each to work effectively towards independent writing. In this paper, these issues are relevant support and independent writing, effective writing, and concreteness and abstract character of writing. Relevant Support and Independent Writing It is often a great concern that independent writing should proceed when children finally learned the what’s and how’s in writing. However, doing this is not an outright activity that children can learn in a short pace. Independent writing, apart from shared writing, is advocated by teachers and schools, enabling children to translate their ideas through usage of grammatical structures and other organisational features in their own means and terms. However, doing this alone seems a problem on the part of the child if relevant support is lacking and is thus resolved through the presence of this support. The National Literacy Strategy outlines specific procedures in the provision of relevant support to children as writers. Independent learning is thus not separate from providing relevant support by the teacher, but should rather be initialised through it. With relevant support, the teacher enables children to keep the story in their heads, in which a clear sense of the overall text is viewed, as well as how it should be ended. The style and voice of the text are learned by the child through this guidance (Department for Education and Employment, 2000, p. 15). It is likewise important to point out that without the teacher’s initial support in the writing process, it would be very difficult for children to grasp fully the needed stages and methods required in the process and to be truly independent in doing the task. This emphasis on providing relevant support to the children writers is aligned with the Bullock Report (1975, p. 141 in Wellington and Osborne, 2001), which advocates that there is a need for all teachers to see themselves as teachers of language. oweverm doing this The national literacy strategy designed a concise and specific procedure in which teaching how to write may be appreciated by children and create in them children writers. Most children become confident in writing for different purposes by the beginning of Year 2. It includes the ability to write a simple narrative, a set of instructions, and a non-chronological report. It is in this phase that they are able to rehearse their sentences upon writing independently and exhibit evidence in the application of knowledge of language alongside its structures. The importance of reading in writing is seen as a relevant aspect in teaching children how to write. Likewise, children’s independent writing is seen in their ability to use punctuations on simple sentences and in their ability to use spelling strategies through knowledge of phonics and sight vocabulary (Department for Education and Employment, 2000). The ability to improve their writing is likewise demonstrated during Year 2, in which children start learning about the ways on how to extend words and sentence structure. The importance of relevant support that enables children to improve independent learning is emphasized in this phase, in which necessary methods and strategies are employed by the writer. The National Literacy Strategy specifies in its provision the importance of language in which children writers know a great deal of during their entry into Year 1. Through this year, the learning acquired in the Foundation Stage is developed and applied in a number of literacy activities. The objectives employed in the NLS Framework for Teaching objectives for Year 1 covers reading, writing, and word level objectives, aimed at supporting this progress (Department for Education and Employment, 2000). This purpose is likewise aligned with the Cox Report (1989), which aims to develop children’s capability to understand Standard English with an ultimate objective of preparing them for life by enabling them to write formal Standard English. By this, English in the National Curriculum has an overriding aim of enabling all pupils to develop their ability of the use and understanding of English to the full. The same purpose is relevant in teaching children how to write. Effective Writing In teaching children how to write, independent writing is an essential goal of the teacher in which planning writing is the first stage. It is essential that the teacher should talk to children about writing where he/she clarifies the content and purpose of the writing process. It is important to note that ideas become clear through telling and retelling, revealing the overall structure, and framing it in writerly language. Making a plan is geared towards recording the intended text from which to compose the text in independent and shared writing (Department for Education and Employment, 200, p. 14). It is often a problem that children do not show interest in writing nor enjoy the process of writing, which in this paper attributes to their lack of knowledge and skills in structuring their abstract thoughts through a written framework. Teachers are often found unsuccessful in carrying out the task of teaching children how to write due to these reasons. The UK government and the school curriculum may have established methods and procedures by which objectives in literacy strategy and developing early writing may be achieved, but it is often argued that the proper implementation of the plan, alongside effective teaching and coaching techniques of the teachers are indispensable aspects in the success of teaching children how to write. The issue of effective writing is thus attained through this necessary ingredient with the policy. It is significant to note that the National Literacy Strategy includes different stages of literacy by which a child writer may pass through, enabling him to grasp each level until the last on the line is achieved. Phonics and spelling is emphasized in the first level, wherein a child writer spells two-syllable words as well as words with prefixes and suffixes, and spell regular past tense verbs with –ed. Handwriting is next to this level, aimed at acquiring confidence in independent writing. Style is also harnessed through the use of language effects, which are selected from a variety of word choices and are given detail in order to engage the reader. Indeed, several stages are passed through until the child writer reaches the process stage whereby initial jottings, notes, and ideas are emphasized before writing, as well as rehearsing sentences and adapting and rereading during writing in determining errors and where improvements might be made (Anwyll, 2001). Without these stages, the child writer would find it difficult to direct his skills appropriately, to utilise techniques, and adopt the correct methods in writing. Concreteness and Abstract character of Writing The cognitive level of children in KS1 is often within the concrete level, in which grasping concepts through physical objects is said to be the most effective. This emphasis on the concrete is proved by the employment of concrete objects in Math, Science, and other relevant subject matters in order to facilitate quick and meaningful learning. However, writing does not dwell on concrete concepts alone but attempts to reach abstraction in which “what is” is not its focus but “what it means” (Fulton, 2000). The generation and appropriation of language, which gives attention to how written language differs from speech, is emphasized in this pursuit. It is important that the teacher does not solely rely on concrete concepts when teaching children how to write, nor lead children to structure their writing within these concepts. On the contrary, the encouragement of the heightening of the concept into abstract thoughts and children’s successful usage of this concept are important feats in themselves. In Year 1, teachers talk to the children about the latter’s decision to be effective writers. This is reinforced by children’s interaction among one another as they talk about the writing task and the content of their pieces. They are taught to use dry-wipe boards to try writing sections of the text prior to writing alone. Most importantly, the teacher’s immediate feedback serves as a confirmation or a correction of emerging conceptions on the writing process (Department for Education and Skills, 1999). It is a task of the school to enable each child to improve writing and reduce the gap between attainment in reading and writing. Along with this concern is the issue about raising the attainment of children in writing and addressing cases of underperformance (Primary National Strategy, 2006). In order to do this, reading aloud is a strategy employed by teachers to enable children to become familiar with the usage of the English language, which in a sense in the concrete level of learning how to write. It is also important to point out that the concrete and abstract concepts in writing are both utilised in different genres and text styles, drawing an inference that one can never really set aside the use of concrete concepts in writing and solely adopt abstract writing. There are relevant piece of writing that requires the usage of concrete concept, like when a child writer writes a free verse poem. The goals specified in the National Literacy Strategy coincide with the need reported by the Rose Report. The Rose Report states that particular nationally urgent concerns are found about the comparatively weak performance of the 15 percent of children who failed to reach the target level for their age in reading by the end of Key Stage 1 and who have not reached the same by the end of Key Stage 2 (Rose, 2006). For Key stage 1 (7 years of age), around 85, 000 children did not reach their target age in reading while 95, 000 is recorded for Key Stage 2. There is likewise a generally weaker performance of boys as compared to girls generated in this report. Different Text Types and Types of Genre: How Writing Changes In critically examining the issues relating to the effective teaching of writing, it is important to discuss how writing changes through text types and generic text structure, which may be employed by children as writers. The focus on these text types and types of genre creates an inference that children should undertake certain necessary rules in attempting to write. Retelling traditional tales, for example., aims to entertain and pass on traditional culture, whose corresponding generic text structure includes an opening that involves a setting and introduction of characters, a series of building-up events, complications, resulting events, and resolution and ending. It differs form adventure as another text type whose goal is to entertain, enthrall, and allows escape from reality. Its genre is different from that of the retelling traditional tales in that in involves complications. (Department for Education and Employment, 2001, p. 152). Free verse, on the other hand, intends to entertain, create and recreate an experience. This genre employs opening and closure, a range of possible structures, and varied pattern on the page through words. Meanwhile, Haiku is another text type in the writing genre aiming to entertain, create an essence of natural experience, and capture a profound experience in a few words. This genre uses opening and closure and uses three lines only (ibid). It is important to note that a child writer would certainly employ different writing styles in regard to all these genres and text styles, whose purposes are distinct and specific for each kind. Thus, the issue that must be addressed here is that there is no specific style in writing which children should be ‘identified’ with, but must be able to learn different writing genres and text styles and adapt themselves to these genres. Becoming effective is the goal of each teacher in his/her children writers, and such is not limited to writing a specific genre only, like a free verse only or a haiku only in terms of poetry. In the same manner, children as writers are not only to learn how to write a prose, poetry, or a short story in each teacher’s pursuit to give them support in their writing. Each genre is said to cater for various types of audiences. In the same manner, children writers must be aware of who these audiences are, or simply the people for whom they are writing. When retelling traditional tales for example, the writing style varies in a way that it is written in either first or third person, is presented in the past tense through a chronological structure in which a contrasting good or bad through humans or animals is embodied. Language effects in this genre also create impact on the reader, such as the usage of adverbs, adjectives, expressive verbs, similes, etc. Writing a traditional tale connotes employing all these required sentence/world level features, which is not necessarily similar with other genres such as adventure and free verse. In the same manner, the child writer must be aware of the do’s and don’ts in writing these genres, such as in the adventure text style where the audience must not be told what to feel but rather allow them to feel the emotion through concrete description. The audience must not also be told about what the character feels – whether she was happy, but must be shown that the character indeed was, through concrete descriptions. In traditional tales, however, linking the tale together is important through borrowing words and phrases presented to the audience. There is also a need on the part of the writer to rehearse his traditional tale by constant retelling before writing. Likewise, it must be clear with the audience about few key events, which is an important aspect in retelling traditional tales. This can only happen if the writer is able to see the story happening in his head and the events are being retold or written. The usage of repetitive lines also encourages the audience to join in as well as by keeping the characters distinctly good, bad, lazy, and hardworking, etc. (Department for Education and Employment, 2001, p. 153). In free verse, the audience must be led by avoiding abstract nouns such as love, possibility, etc. In this sense, the writer must describe concretely what he/she is writing about. It posits then that concrete thoughts are also important to be developed in writing, not just an emphasis on the abstract concepts. Capturing flow and rhythm may be undertaken by rereading. The usage of figure of speech must be with careful handlings, such as simile, which must be used if it comes swiftly; otherwise, it would certainly sound false (ibid). In haiku, on the other hand, the audience is made to appreciate the genre through the writer’s careful observation of events and scenes and focuses on seemingly insignificant detail through suggestion rather than statement. The audience appreciates this genre through the writer’s careful observation of scenes and events as well as by creating a verbal snapshot in order to capture precisely the moment’s essence. All these descriptions clarify the importance of sound knowledge for different genres in order for the writer to direct his/her writing according to what is required. Marking Criteria The Primary National Strategy (2007) focuses on marking criteria for writing and explains how schools can utilise Primary Framework in informing and guiding professionals’ development in a pursuit to improve learning, teaching, and attaining. The role of senior leaders, who hold the key to success in the attainment of school-centered excellence, is being focused on by this framework. The children’s pursuit in writing is marked using the Primary National Strategy framework through analysis and self-review, planning of CPD, professional support, collaborative development of improvements in classroom practice, and evaluation. The old Literacy Strategy includes re-think assessment as part of the marking criteria in which students undertake self-assessment, presentations in small groups, re-presenting in different format, group feedback, re-teaching a lesson, feedback from other groups, and learning buddy. The framework likewise includes the acquisition of feedback from students on their attitudes to marking, focusing on what helps them and what doesn’t. It also employs the so-called “get-clear in your mind formative-v-summative assessment,” and the “get one team testing new homework –setting patterns.” The marking criteria is displayed in all classrooms and evaluated through the use of sampling (Barton, 2000). The usage of self-assessment in writing allows children to be independent and autonomous in carrying out the writing task. Under the national Curriculum level descriptors for writing, it is said that schools need to design their own marking arrangements through non-provision of external marking. Published materials are available online alongside teacher’s guide. All the information that a school needs in marking the tests and determine levels are provided in these materials. There is a need for schools to order the appropriate number of Mark scheme since these tests will not be extremely marked. The decision on the usage of the writing criteria is taken upon by the school, including whether they are to be reported to parents with the teacher assessment levels. With all these undertaking however, test results are not collected or published (National Assessment Agency, 2008). In this marking criteria, the pieces of work done by a child writer is being evaluate based on the agreed-upon decision of the school and may vary from school to school whereby the culture, curriculum, and the general ability of children are considered. Making the marked results confidential and not published is a good stance in the usage of this framework. Conclusion The issues relating to the effective teaching of writing is presented in this paper on the concept of children as writers. It is said that children writers must build around a certain sequence in order to truly learn the process of writing. The issues relating to the effective teaching of writing depicted in this paper are relevant support and independent writing, effective writing, and concreteness and abstract character of writing. Writing changes through text types and generic text structure, which must be learned by children as writers. Children should undertake necessary procedures in attempting to write through the focus on these genres and text types. Likewise, out of a pursuit to improve children’s writing, the marking criteria has changed from the Old Literacy Strategy and the national Curriculum Level descriptors for writing to the New Primary Framework. References Anwyll, S. (2001) The National Literacy Strategy: Three Years on, Literacy Today, Issue No. 29, December. Barton, G. (2000) Using whole-school literacy strategies to improve teaching and learning, http://www.geoffbarton.co.uk/files/teacher-resources/2003/KS3/KS3Conference.ppt, Date Accessed 1/18/2009. Bullock, A. (1975) The Bullock Report: A language for life, London: Her Majesty’s Stationary Office. Cox, B. (1989) English for ages 5 to 16, London: DfEE and Welsh Office. Department for Education and Employment (2001) The national literacy strategy: Developing early writing, Department for Education and Employment. Department for Education and Skills (1999) National literacy strategy, Department for Education and Skills. Flower, L. and Hayes, J. (1984) Images, plans, and prose: The representation of meaning in writing, Written Communication, Vol. 1, No. 1, p. 120-160. Fulton, D. (2000) Unlocking literacy: A guide for teachers, David Fulton Publishers, Ltd. National Assessment Agency (2008) Changes to national curriculum tests and teacher assessments, National Assessment Agency. Primary National Strategy (2006) Improving writing, with a particular focus on supporting boys’ writing development, Primary National Strategy. Primary National Strategy (2007) Leading improvement using the primary framework guidance to head teachers and senior leaders, Department for Education and Skills. Rose, J. (2006) The Rose Report: Independent review of the teaching of early reading, Department for Education and Skills. Wellington. J. and Osborne, J. (2001) Language and literacy in science education, Buckingham: Open University Press. Read More