Attitudes of Undergraduate Students toward E-learning in Arabic Language Courses - Thesis Example

LITERATURE REVIEW Attitudes of Undergraduate toward E-learning in Arabic Language s: A Case Study of King Khalid in SaudiArabia Abstract “Attitude is defined as a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor” (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, p. 1) Attitudes play a very important role in the university context. Attitudes can be changed through a system of incentives. Specially, when attitudes have been fostered in a tight knit society like Saudi Arabia’s they can be easily changed with incentives. For example e-learning will enable students to be familiar with modern technology. Modern Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in turn, has a number of advantages. When a community of students is offered incentives their attitudes are more likely to change because the temptation of incentives cannot be avoided. The success of the program is then determined by this enthusiasm. University students at the King Khalid University in Saudi Arabia have been enlisted on this e-learning program with the same promise of a better future with highly advanced technology. E-learning is a process in which technology such as computers and internet-based resources are utilized to learn in an informal environment away from a formal instruction-oriented classroom Undergraduate university students, who form a sizeable population at tertiary level educational institutions in any given country at a time, have, of late, been called upon to undertake e-learning as a more viable practical alternative to other methods of study. E-learning and e-teaching environments necessarily differ in contextual and atmospheric dimensions and their definitional parameters have been stretched beyond the simple computer mediated proposition. Asynchronous e-learning and e-teaching have become the order of the day in most informal environments where teachers are far removed, sometimes thousands of miles, from the learner. Yet again, there is a distinction between pedagogy-driven e-learning and technology-driven e-learning. A considerable amount of literature has been compiled on the attitudinal perspectives of the university student population in the English speaking world, but nevertheless the same cannot be said about the non-English speaking countries like Saudi Arabia, where university undergraduates have displayed a remarkable paradigm shift in attitude to embrace e-learning as a radical alternative to formal instructional method of learning. This paucity of literature on the subject has weighed more on my effort to produce a comprehensive study on the hitherto less explored phenomenon of e-learning by undergraduate Arabic language students in the King Khalid University in Saudi Arabia. The corpus of literature “E-learning is a broad-based combination of processes, content and infrastructure to use computers and networks to scale or/and to improve one or more significant parts of a learning value chain including management and delivery” (Adrich, 2004, 240). At the King Khalid University in Saudi Arabia, which spends a huge percentage of its annual budget on e-learning, the Arabic language students have, for the first time, been exposed to this novel experience of learning in an informal technology-mediated environment. My effort to explore, record and dissect the attitudes of these students numbering around 400 in all, led me to investigate in depth the already available literature on the subject. Attitudes are shaped by a number of factors such as culture, ethnicity, sex, age, socio-economic status, individual predilections or prejudices about a subject and even individual experience and exposure to it. However, expectations play a still bigger role in shaping the attitude of the potential e-learner (Allen and Allen, 2003, p.93). E-learning outcomes are subject to a series of variances and co-variances depending on the e-learner environment and attitudinal perspectives thereof which, in turn, are influenced by the very environment. Expectations are generated in this environment and higher the expectations, the greater the positive attitude (ibid Allen and Allen). Expectations augmented e-learner attitudes entail very positive outcomes irrespective of the psychological impact of the former on the learning process. E-learners’ tendency to identify themselves with a more informal technology mediated environment of learning can be more rewarding at times. Dynamic e-learning programs are designed and executed by university authorities with this particular perspective on mind. Their objectives in designing and implementing such programs might vary, though the ultimate aim could be nothing other than speeding up the process of learning both qualitatively and quantitatively (Rossett, 2001, p.258). Rossett stresses the need for qualitative improvement in knowledge through a system of incentives. Therefore what Allen and Allen advocate is that expectations augmented e-learner outcomes will have to be adjusted to incorporate a degree of flexibility through some incentives. In liberal e-learning environments where inquisitive authorities are absent or do not pry on individual e-learners’ habits such as accessing websites online, the polarizing effect on shaping attitudes is less visible, though there can still be some ideological pre-orientation to what’s desirable and what’s not. In Saudi Arabia, where the current e-learner market has been valued at $125 million, Government authorities have been actively encouraging university students to undertake e-learning as a better alternative or in addition to formal learning methods. Almost all big universities in Saudi Arabia have adopted e-learning programs with internet and intranet facilities made available at every university. It is against this particular backdrop that a literature review on undergraduate students’ attitudes toward e-learning in Saudi Arabia must be undertaken. King Khalid University provides the kind of classical atmosphere for a technology-driven program of e-learning for Arabic language students who aspire for a Bachelor’s degree at the end. I will focus my literature review on this aspect as well as the other areas of concern and relevance that I have outlined in the abstract. Theoretical perspectives on e-learning Keegan, the foremost authority on distance education, provides a rather comprehensive working definition on distance education that encompasses all procedures involved. In a careful formulation of the role played by the technological media in distance education, Keegan identifies the medium-specific tools for the development of a distance education system, thus advising the administrator as to how to avoid common mistakes involved in the process (Keegan, 1996, 3rd Ed, p.46). He suggested that a comprehensive theory of distance education could serve as “a touchstone” against which decisions can be taken as and when they are to be taken. According to him distance education is a “distinct field of endeavor parallel to and a complement of conventional education” (ibid Keegan, p. 210). Theoretical postulates on the subject of e-learning are much less in number and the researcher is faced with the uphill task of finding and collating data on the subject. The already available body of literature does not have a directional thrust to clearly define and identify trends in this sphere of learning. Neither does it provide us with adequate secondary data to investigate its recent developments. Fernandez-Manjon et al (2007) commenting on the need for and availability of expertise for e-learning programs at educational institutions, dwell on the theoretical aspects as well. “We cover the process to transform a given knowledge domain into the instructional components of the theory using an educational modeling language to describe both learning objects and sequencing”(Fernandez-Manjon et al, 2007, 228). This trend is continued by other authors on the subject to a certain extent, though such writings still have not succeeded in developing a uniformly coherent body of literature on the theoretical paradigms of e-learning methodology at universities. (a) Synchronous versus asynchronous learning Stereotypical literature on e-learning methodology and theory abounds albeit, the applicatory significance of it is less felt by ambitious researchers. It is essential at the outset to draw a distinction between synchronous instructional method and asynchronous instructional method since such a distinction inevitably leads to the development of a theoretical framework to assess the varying paradigms of attitude held by undergraduate students who are the object of our study. In the process it is also imperative to place weights on the different perceptive, psychological and cultural influences on attitudes. Synchronous instructional method, in a more conventional learning environment such as a classroom, necessitates two or more simultaneous activities by teachers and pupils. For example teachers use direct didactic methodology to impart knowledge while pupils are engaged in listening and absorbing. These two activities cannot be performed with a time gap. Such conventional learning processes are always synchronized. On the other hand asynchronous instructional method refers to unconventional teaching-learning processes in which the two activities do not take place simultaneously. Here the instructor may choose the lesson delivery time at his own discretion. Such informal methods, along with technology, have revolutionized education (Merrienboer, Koper and Jochems, 2003, P.74-76). When attitudes of undergraduate students to e-learning are assessed, it is all the more essential to identify the more pressing issues at hand of such a program. Attitudes are not fixed for ever. They are subject to change. As such it is the cultural premise that needs to be studied in depth. Culture plays a pivotal role in asynchronous technology driven learning environments. Both culture and individual attitudes not only play a pivotal role in determining student perception of e-learning but also they continuously influence their rate of participation (Palloff and Pratt, 2003, p.129). The authors stress the significance of culture against the other less important variables such as monetary incentives. In addition to culture they also identify gender and lifestyles as influential determinants of students’ attitudes. Numerous other authors have stressed the important impact of culture on attitudes of university undergraduates on e-learning and they almost unanimously agree on one particular focal point, i.e. in non-English speaking countries, in universities where the medium of instruction is not English, the attitude towards e-learning is colored by prejudice and bias. This theoretical premise has not been negated by other researchers too. In the first instance, theoretically speaking cultural prejudice against a computer-mediated learning process is quite understandable for computer is associated with internet which according to some people has a negative influence on indigenous cultures and values. Though the argument sounds too puritanical dictated by a fundamental instinct to protect one’s social mores against so called foreign influence, it is an inevitable fact with an omnipotent force. Some authors even suggest revolutionary approaches to e-learning. According to them it is not a matter to be left in the hands of politicians and university administrators. “In order to fulfill the dream of efficiency that make online education appealing to legislators and university administrators, customization and cultural sensitivity cannot be given adequate attention” (Carr-Chellman, 2005, front matter). This is not the only instance where we have come across significant opposition to supporters of culture by those who advocate a paradigm shift in attitude. There are others who support this approach for one reason or the other. (b) Pedagogy-driven versus technology-driven e-learning Pedagogy-driven e-learning is based on pedagogical strategies that are intended to divert the face-to-face conventional instruction-centric classroom pedagogy away from its formal environment to a more dynamic pedagogical context where e-learning puts an e-teacher at the center of the classroom (Adams and Gareth, 2007, pp.157-185). Pedagogy-driven e-learning produces a lot of interaction between the teacher and the pupil. This quality is based on pedagogical instruction-delivered formal learning environments. Pedagogy-driven learning is now also possible in e-learning classrooms. When the intranet is turned on the lecturer or the instructor appears on the screen. The lesson is well planned for the time period. This instructor-centric approach has equally well endeared itself to many e-learners at universities where the medium of instruction is not English. The student has very little to do by way of turning on and off the technical gadgets. In most of the instances there is an instructor in the classroom who gives instructions on what students have to do and so on. Pedagogy-driven e-learning also presupposes the use of conventional wisdom, i.e. a complementary strategy based on the teacher’s ability to reinforce students’ existing knowledge by providing the final synthesis. For example in teaching natural sciences the teacher is able to demonstrate to the class what the students missed on. The theoretical aspect of pedagogy-driven e-learning has been developed over time to replace the conventional experiential learning strategies so that what is lacking in the latter could be accomplished by the former. On the other hand, technology-driven e-learning is an experiential, student-focused method that has a number of complex manifestations and wider implications for liberty, classroom learning and pedagogical instructions (Adams and Gareth, 2007, pp. 157-185). The authors dispute the current notion of some e-learning theorists who claim that e-learning is, necessarily, not influenced by cultural and socio-economic factors. Above all they posit the theoretical underpinnings of the subject at the center of the raging debate “whether e-learning programs should be designed with a view to adequately addressing the cultural and socio-economic factors that influence attitudes of university undergraduates toward e-learning”. Those, who are opposed to the factoring in of culture-determined attitudinal perspectives into the equation, argue that procedural bottlenecks apart, the anti-progressive attitudes must not be tolerated because they tend to foster class prejudices at different levels of the social strata. Edmundson in her book “Globalized E-learning Cultural Challenges”, addresses a range of issues arising out of cultural misunderstandings that might not only hinder “effective transfer of knowledge” but also preclude societies from enjoying the associated benefits of advanced education (Edmundson, Ed, 2007, Introduction). The book also examines the current debate on the impact of culture and cultural dimensions on attitudes of student communities at local universities (ibid Edmundson, p.284). The book is primarily targeted at instructional designers, educators and administrators as a persuasive effort to draw on the rich experience of progressive cultures in the world that would not hesitate to adopt e-learning at their universities. The body of seminal literature on the subject justifies the argument though exclusive privileges that are supposedly enjoyed by these progressive societies – the West, North America and emerging global players like India and China – cannot be taken for granted by societies that demand sufficient guarantees against vitiating cross-cultural influences. It’s against this background that we have to posit, in part, our analysis of the attitudes of undergraduate university students toward e-learning at the King Khalid University in Saudi Arabia. Exclusive homogeneous cultures such as those found in the Arab world do not readily seek to assimilate foreign perceptions and concepts into their social contexts, even if they were claimed to be positive in their impact. This is in direct contrast to the attitude of heterogeneous cultures in the West and North America. Indigenous cultures tend to develop insular fences of protection against influence. Authors Norah Jones and John O’Shea in a recent paper argue that, “While in the prevailing administrative structures the boundaries between academic departments and support departments were well protected by tradition and culture, the development of an e-learning environment led to the creation of multi-disciplinary teams from different academic support and administrative departments”(Jones and O’Shea, 2004, pp.379-395). In fact the reference to is the introduction of an e-learning program at the University of Glamorgan, UK and there is a growing body of literature on the subject of e-learning at universities that supports such programs on the premise that they tend to redraw the existing boundaries of cultural segregation on a closely-knit community of common identity. Thus, the heterogeneous character that obviously exists across cultures tends to be obliterated when e-learning is adopted at educational institutions. Interaction among indigenous students need not be taken for granted. It can be extended to a global level. The e-learning pilot project at the King Khalid University in Saudi Arabia has been designed with similar ambitions. The administrators have already put in place an e-library that has 16,000 e-books for lending and borrowing at any time. It is all the more pertinent to focus our attention on the governmental support or indifference to such e-learning programs. The Saudi Arabian government has not been averse to the latest developments taking place in the sphere of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Despite being wary about cross-cultural influences, it has actively been encouraging its citizens to be computer-literate. The theoretical underpinnings of governmental attitudes have to be juxtaposed against the correlations that exist elsewhere in the sphere of development. Social cohesion is much desired by governments despite its apparent challenge to the very system which nurtures it. Both in China and Iran, two culturally homogeneous societies, the opposition to the political establishment came from university students. The former suppressed it while the latter allowed some degree of freedom to students. A distinction between strategy and conceptual development must be made here. There is a considerable amount of strategic planning that goes into design and execution of e-learning programs at universities. Strategic e-learning programs have four phases and they need to be integrated with the e-learner community. For example these four phases are integrated into one single whole. That is why a holistic approach in adopting e-learning programs at university level is encouraged. In the absence of a comprehensive theoretical approach to the integration of various elements in e-learning environments, we need to improvise on the available resources to present a dynamic model of integration. Such a model will have the following four phases as essential integral elements. Design phase Planning phase Execution or implementation phase Delivery phase These four phases have been included in the process of e-learning strategy in order to understand the relative significance of each phase so that negative attitudes of undergraduate students can be evaluated against each phase. If a particular phase attracts more negative comments then that phase can be overhauled to reduce the amount of negative attitude, rather than overhauling the whole program, thereby incurring waste. Strategic integration four-phase graph on e-learning programs This model reflects priorities and identifies the need for a synthesis of attitudes and the four phase e-learning strategy. The current discourse on e-learning and the need for a culture-specific integration strategy has faced an uphill task due to the haphazard nature of design and implementation of e-learning environments at universities in non-English speaking countries. The model adequately acknowledges the existence of diametrically opposite attitudes and views on the subject and therefore seeks to incorporate such centrifugal tendencies as necessary elements in an integrated whole. Types of Attitudes At the King Khalid University in Saudi Arabia, the student community engaged in Arabic language studies, is a select group of students whose attitudes toward e-learning is determined by the same causal factors as elsewhere in a non-English speaking country. In the first place we may identify the types of attitudes and classify them under their respective domains. Types of attitudes: Culture-specific attitudes Socio-economic attitudes Gender-specific attitudes Political attitudes Cultural attitudes of undergraduate students tend to vary at every sub-stratum. For example the elitist students in the same university might not entertain qualms about foreign cultural influences to the extent their less fortunate counterparts might. Most of them are either already exposed to cross-cultural influences or they have planned to emigrate to foreign climes for their higher studies. On the other hand those who are less moneyed might not be positively inclined to receive e-learning experiences in the same vein as the former. This psychological parameter heavily impacts on the shaping of attitudes. Attitudes of undergraduate students are typically culture-specific when it comes to class-based prejudice and bias. Socio-economic attitudes of undergraduate students have often been delineated by writers on other subjects as “the most potent force in determining responses to social change. Any catalyst of change has its basis in this sphere. Social and economic divisions among students could impact positively or negatively on attitudes in general. Richardson in his book “Hip Hop Literacies”, identifies a particularly disturbing tendency among e-learners in particular and others in general. “Basic human dignity and respect should be given in society. However, due to consumer culture in which we live, lives are assigned different values based on their positioning in the social order” (Richardson, 2006, p.44). Consumerism with its attendant abundance of choices fulfills not only human avarice for pleasurable living but also indulgence in egoistic hedonism. Invariably, undergraduate students of Arabic language courses, at King Khalid University in Saudi Arabia, are more or less prone to these tendencies, for they come from urban elite and middle class backgrounds while those in rural heartland have little or no access to university education. Consumerism is associated with socio-economic status. The theoretical postulates that underlie this attitude cannot be too divergent from what obtains under circumstances elsewhere in the world. Economic factors play a very strategic role here. They are applied, indeed, with discriminatory bias to accommodate peculiar conditions of the Arabic socio-economic milieu. In comparison to Western milieus, the degree of convergence is more pronounced than the degree of divergence, in socio-economic behavior. However, gender-based segregation in education in Saudi Arabia has a negative impact on co-education efforts in e-learning. “Despite the encouragement, extra credit given and messages sent to the students individually and as a group, only one student from UQU and 4 students from KSU registered in Makkah e-Learning and there was very little interaction in the discussion forums throughout the semester. Only five messages were posted by the KSU students throughout the semester and no messages were posted by the UQU students. The online collaborative project shared by UQU and KSU students proved to be a total failure. The authors students were shy, apprehensive and hesitant to register, as they were used to learning in a segregated environment”(Al-Jarf, 2007, www.readingmatrix.com). The author has clearly identified the dilemma faced by e-teaches and administrators in Saudi Arabia due to gender-based segregation in education. Cultural inhibitors like this would definitely have a negative bearing on the outcomes of e-learning programs at universities. Despite the fact that women too have a great desire to participate in the e-learning process, there can be some discouraging influences like the anxiety and an unwillingness to reveal identity. Gender may not play a very significant role in determining attitudes of undergraduate students at universities toward e-learning though. In fact there is a cohesiveness in attitudes of both male and female students toward e-learning because they tend to share a common belief in success. In any society women play an equally important role in social transformation process. In Saudi Arabia too there is a perceptible change taking place. It is this change which has enabled equality in education in Saudi Arabia. Progressive ideas have to be incorporated into the social fabric by both men and women. . Yushau in his paper argues how e-learning could help Saudi society to achieve some of the long term goals in education, argues that attitudes have to be changed in order to achieve social progress. At the same time he takes the position that attitudes must be changed if possible in order to achieve progress. His arguments have found favor with other Saudi academics too. “Some educators defined learning as a change in behavior. Since attitude is the determining factor of peoples’ behavior, the issue then is critical in education. It is a common practice that if a new program is introduced part of the evaluation is to determine people’s attitude toward the program. In most cases, positive attitudes are interpreted as an indicator that the program may succeed. Otherwise, thereis a tendency of failure, and so, the attitude needs to be modified or possibly changed” (Yushau, 1990, p. 176). The author of this paper points out that in the context of Saudi Arabia, e-learning has become an overall success because the society is basically inclined towards a great change. The King Khalid University in Saudi Arabia has been actively promoting a liberal intellectual tradition that is more akin to what prevails in the western hemisphere rather than what is seen in the Arab world. It is this new phenomenon which has to be investigated in studying political attitudes of the Arabic language undergraduate students at King Khalid University toward the introduction of e-learning programs. Political attitudes happen to be the driving force while other types of attitudes dovetail the former. How far such attitudes are able to cause changes in the societal dispensation is altogether a moot point. Though the available literature on the subject is highly biased towards the male point of view, the strategic level of political awareness has reached a crescendo within the precincts of the exalted halls of learning in the country. There is no gainsaying of this fact. Finally in shaping political attitudes, the university becomes the center the first litmus test. Despite all the pros and cons mentioned above on the subject of types of attitudes it must be noted that e-learning experience at the King Khalid University in Saudi Arabia is new phenomenon for the undergraduate students of Arabic language course. As such their own anxiety and anticipation must be measured against the backdrop of changing attitudes towards technology. Technology has both pros and cons. Pros or advantages of new technology are many but such advantages have not been taken on their face value by societies. There is the need for a proper matching process of advantages against costs. Costs can be monetary as well as non-monetary. For example social costs of widening disparities between classes of people and alienation of a sizeable segment of the population have to be taken into consideration. Unless benefits are equally distributed there cannot be a strong case for technological advancement. Thesis statement I have exhaustively surveyed the very genealogy of literature on the attitudinal perspectives of the Arabic language course undergraduate university students at the King Khalid University in Saudi Arabia toward e-learning programs being initiated at the university, with a view to culling particularly strong theoretical underpinnings to support my own thesis statement: “Undergraduate university students of Arabic language courses at the King Khalid University have the same degree of convergence in attitude formation toward the novel e-learning experience, as those of any other university in the Arab world”. The prototypical nature of social, economic and political cultures cannot be overemphasized to undermine the importance of other variables though. The concept of proto-typicality in indigenous contexts is equally loaded with philosophical connotations and denotations that underlie critically perceptive attitude studies. A neatly ordered theoretical postulate does not necessarily support the syllogism that impervious community cultures could exist even in widely exposed social orders. The above thesis statement has been the result of my exclusive prioritizing of this study on an aspectual correlation between cognitive biases and inevitable circumstance. Cognitive biases have been subject to a broader scrutiny and they have been investigated with equanimity to achieve a coherent theoretical basis for the study. Cognitive processes cannot be ignored in a study of attitudes specially, when they impact on individual psychological disposition as a corollary. A cognitive bias is a pattern of deviation in individual judgment that takes place in particular situations such as attitude formation. In other words cognitive biases are instances of evolved psychological behavior. An evolution in behavioral patterns presumes a bias in attitude. Volitional behavior too is biased to a certain degree. Psychological notions such as perceived cost and perceived benefit might be primarily reiterated as virtual tendencies among undergraduate university students whose attitudes depend on the four classes of attitudes illustrated above. Cognitive theorists on attitude formation adopt two experimental paradigms to study the process of polarizing individual disposition. Parochial cognitive biases are generated under these two paradigms (Alicke, Zerbst and Loschiavo, 1996, pp.211-228). (a) Attitude attribution paradigm (b) Questioner-contestant paradigm The authors’ findings conclusively prove the theoretical premise that participants’ personal attitudes remain stronger despite the fact that they are reminded of their predetermined position with regard to the position targets or the role they are supposed to play. In other words any external stimuli that may be introduces as exogenous variables to exert pressure on subjects such as students to prevaricate on their prior-held attitudes, could have no impact on changing the attitudes. My logical premise in the thesis statement is not about convergent behavior of individual undergraduate students with regard to their attitudes toward e-learning but the near universal convergent tendency displayed by undergraduate university students in the Arab world toward e-learning, irrespective of their university background. They are more or less likely to behave in a manner that would mitigate the adverse effect of their prior-held attitudes toward e-learning. In other words Arab university students hold the common view that e-learning has its own advantages though negative effects of cross-cultural influences cannot be ruled out. Conclusion The primacy and immediacy of attitudes persistently acquire a degree of greater significance notwithstanding the efforts of behavior modification on the part of exogenous agents. However, there must not be a presumption that such attitudes are bound to be negative. The psycho-social environment of the undergraduate university student at the King Khalid University is an endogenous determinant/variable of attitudes among students. Therefore the hypothesis, that cultural, socio-economic, gender-related and political factors underlie and influence attitudes thus leading to cognitive bias, is a theoretical posture adopted in order to investigate the undergraduate students’ attitude toward e-learning at the King Khalid University. The cognitive construct is a plausible parameter employed by psychological theory to study characteristically peculiar patterns of behavior that are not otherwise amenable to interpretation or analysis. Thus I have come to following broader but significantly momentous conclusions about the prevalent attitude of the undergraduate Arabic language students of the King Khalid University in Saudi Arabia toward e-learning. Conventional instructional methods of learning still have an appeal to these students while their enthusiasm for it may be waning right now. Computer-mediated, technology-driven informal learning environments exacerbate existing diffidence. Initial excitement about e-learning and its related merits have not been constant throughout. Cultural constraints have an obvious impact on the student perception of e-learning. Students are apprehensive about the quality of lesson design and adequacy of resources to deliver the intended results. They are positive about the would-be outcomes of the e-learning program if it is properly managed. Students feel that there must be continuous assessment of its relative merits and demerits. Lack of interest is heightened due to poor e-content management. Their own suggestions should be taken into consideration by the administrators in devising an overall strategy. Cross-cultural influences must be tolerated to a greater extent, so that censorship is carried out as and when it is extremely necessary. Finally, a system of rewards must be introduced. REFERENCES 1. Al-Jarf, Reima Sado, (2007), Cultural Issues in Online Collaboration Instructions in ESL Classrooms, retrieved on July 24, 2008 from www.readingmatrix.com. 2. Abdulkarim A Al Saif,(2005), The motivating and inhibiting factors affecting the use of web-based instruction at the University of Qassim in Saudi Arabia.ETD Collection for Wayne State University. Paper AAI3168482. http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/dissertations/AAI3168482 3. Adams, J and Gareth, M (2007), Second Generation E-learning: Charateristics and Design Principles for Supporting Management Soft Skills Development, International Journal of E-learning, vol. 6(2), pp.157-185. 4. Adrich, C (2004), Simulations and the Future of Learning, San Francisco, Pfeiffer. 5.. Allen, Michael W and Allen Michael, (2003), Michael Allen’s Guide to E- learning, New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6. Alicke, Mark D, Zerbst, Jennifer I and Loschiavo, Frank M (1996), Personal Attitudes, Constraint Magnitude and Correspondence Bias, Vol. 18(2), pp.211-228. 7. Carr-Chellman, Allison A, (2005), Global Perspectives on E-learning: Rhetoric and Reality, California, Sage Publications, Inc. 8. Edmundson, Andrea, Ed, (2007), Globalized E-learning Cultural Challenges, Pennsylvania, Information Science Publishing. 9. Fernadez-Manjon, Batasar, Gomez-Pulido, Juan A, Sanchez-Peres Juan M and Bravo-Rodriguez, Jose (2007), Computers and Education: E-learning From Theory to Practice, The Netherlands, Springer. 10. Jones, Norah and O’Shea, John (2004), Challenging Hierarchies: The Impact of E-learning, Vol. 48(3), pp. 379-395, The Netherlands, Springer. 11. Keegan, Desmond (1996), Foundations of Distance Education, London, Routledge. 12. Kubba, Laith, (1996), Islam and Liberal Democracy: Recognizing Pluralism, Journal of Democracy, (pp. 86-89), retrieved on July 19, 2008, From http://calliope.jhu.edu/jpurnals/journal_of_democracy. . 13. Merrienboer, J.V, Jochems, W, and Koper K (2003), Integrated E-Learning: Implications for Pedagogy, Technology and Organization, New York, Routledge Publishing. 14. Palloff, Rena M and Pratt, Keith (1990), Building Learning Communities in Cyberspace: Effective Strategies for the Online Classroom, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, Inc. 15. Richardson, E, (2006), Hip Hop Literacies, New York, Routledge. 16 Rossett, Allison (2001), The ASTD E-learning Handbook: Best Practices, Strategies, and Case Studies for an Emerging Field, New York, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 17. Merrienboer, J.V, Jochems, W, and Koper K (2003), Integrated E-Learning: Implications for Pedagogy, Technology and Organization, New York, Routledge Publishing. Read More