Assessment does not stand outside teaching and learning but stands in dynamic - Essay Example

ID: ___________ ______________ ID _________ "Assessment does not stand outside teaching and learning but stands in dynamic Interaction with it." (Caroline Gipps, 1996) Assessment Assessment can be defined as an 'evaluation', carried out in two different aspects; Students assessment Towards students - Peer to peer assessment Towards teachers - Students assess teachers in order to be aware of their teachers' capabilities. Teachers assessment Towards students - Judgement by teachers to analyse students Towards teachers - assessment carried out within teachers. The most fundamental concept about learning cannot be made without the idea of teaching and assessment. Unskeptically learning is constructed and controlled by pupils. Without teachers' willingness to engage with the curriculum and pupils' developing range of cognitive competencies and experiences, learning cannot proceed. (Dann, 2002) If assessment genuinely seeks to give some indication of pupils' levels of learning and development, in ways, which further advances learning, pupils will need to understand and contribute to the process. Assessment can be of two types: Formal assessment Informal assessment Informal or regular assessment is usually followed in classrooms because teaching often consists of frequent switches in who speaks and who listens, and teachers make many of their decisions within one second (Wragg, 1999). In such a rapidly changing environment, where teachers have to think on their feet and are denied the luxury of hours of reflection over each of their pedagogic choices, assessment has to be carried out on the move. That is why so much informal assessment is often barely perceptible as the flow of the lesson continues, since it is neatly interlaced with normal-looking instruction and activities. Indeed, many teachers would not even regard the common question, 'Is anybody not sure what you're supposed to do' as assessment, but it is, informing the teacher of which pupils might need individual help before starting on the task in hand. (Wragg, 2001) Bennett has explored a large number of theories relating to pupil learning, teaching and assessment, and believes these theories has a lot more to do mainly on psychology rather than teaching and learning, Bennett offers an explanation of the ambivalence sensed by teachers in their quest to identify these theories which effectively inform their practice. He advances the notion that theories take limited account of the complexities of classroom life. The potential value of such theories seems, therefore, to be marginalized by teachers. In citing Doyle's work, Bennett indicates that classroom environments are complex places in which teachers and pupils adapt to each other and where the created environment impacts on them both. The classroom environment is built by the way of communication between teachers and pupils. Doyle's model of classroom learning processes proceeds on the assumption that 'learning is a covert, intellectual activity which proceeds in the socially complex, potentially rich environment'. If this perspective relates to teachers' experiences in carrying out their role then there are clear restrictions to the applications of many theories of learning to teaching contexts. (Dunn, 2002) Identifying the prominence of complexity by no means excuses careful exploration of the issues. It is recognised that one of the aims of schooling is to promote pupil learning yet it is not all agreed about what should be prioritised to comprise such learning. Further more, there remains considerable disagreement as to how learning occurs. It might be said that since the adoption of the National Curriculum we are nearer to agreeing what should be learnt. However, the ways in which learning occurs seems to be rather side-tracked from what are identified as more pressing mechanisms for teaching curriculum content with the main aim of measuring and raising standards. Behaviour Modification Skinner when applied his principles of behaviour modification to teaching, he discovered the teacher's role mechanically in the task of 'arranging the contingencies of reinforcement', which would result in changes in pupil behaviour. Skinner's theory of learning (1969) requires that pupils experienced a stimulus. This would yield a response or behaviour by the pupil. The teacher must take advantage of that response that reinforce the behaviour within pupils and must make use of the theory, which suggests that if the teachers offer the appropriate reinforcement, learning will proceed, irrespective of the motivation, interests or other personal considerations of pupils. (Dunn, 2002) Behaviourism assumes all the ways in which an individual reacts in a determining environment. The substance of learning is presumed to exist independently of a learner. By controlling the stimulus learning can be shaped and modified to predetermined intentions by the teachers. In the recent and final round of Subject Reviews, the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA) asked the following questions within its inspections, making it clear that it regards assessment as a central component of the teaching and learning process. How effective are assessment design and practice in terms of: Clarity, and students' understanding of assessment criteria and assignments; Promoting learning (including the quality of feedback to students); Measuring attainment of the intended learning outcomes; Appropriateness to the student profile, level and mode of study; Consistency and rigour of marking; Evidence of internal moderation and scrutiny by external examiners (Fry et al, 2003) The Role of Learner The individual, in both behaviourism and the objectives model, is regarded as the source of a desired product or effect. The individual is affected by the structure of defined events and contexts. There is little recognition of individually initiated processes, although behaviour that might appear purposive on the part of an individual is explained as being a product of certain stimuli which might have been received in a more powerful way by certain individuals. Contemporary neo-behaviourists, who recognise a more holistic rather than atomistic pathway to learning by describing the effects of combinations of stimulus situations rather than individual stimuli, are still grounded in the assumption that complex learning is controlled by the combination of stimuli given. Similarly within the objectives model, individual differences accorded little attention. All children are expected to demonstrate the objectives identified. They have no scope to shape, negotiate or deviate from these objectives. Together these theories underpin the role of the individual pupil as a mechanical agent who will react to the contexts and information given to him/her. Fundamental opposition to this view of the individual learner is in relation to the individual's engagement in the process of learning as well as in relation to the individual's involvement in shaping the product of learning. Recognising that pupils have a central role in the learning process through their cognitive interactions provides a key challenge for both the objectives model and behaviourism. If learning is regarded as involving an individual, actively in engaging with knowledge and perceptions, the whole process becomes highly complex. From this stance (Gestalt-Field psychology) the individual is recognised as someone who learns by configuring and reconfiguring knowledge so that it relates to existing ideas and learning. The learner is active in interpreting the environment. By recognising that pupils will interpret their learning contexts in ways which vary according to their previous experiences, as well as to their internal cognitive processes, some account can be made for the vast differences in learning displayed within the same learning environment. Furthermore, learning must be intentional. Unless an individual chooses to interact cognitively with the environment learning will not occur. This perspective places considerable emphasis on the role of the pupil in the process of learning. Although objectives and targets may be established and used to frame learning, the outcomes of learning cannot be fully predicted. In order to guide, support and facilitate the learning processes teachers will need to use a repertoire of skills and resources so as to offer pupils the scope to develop insights that are relevant to their own construction of meaning. (Gipps, 1996) It is expected that the learner will be able to take a well-defined problem, apply given tools and methods both accurately and creatively to a set of abstract data or concepts and produce conclusions appropriate to those data. It is the teacher's role to define the problem and supply the tools and methods but from then on it is the students' responsibility to derive the skills outcome. For a learner planning and problem solving can be divided into four skill areas: Decide on action plans and implement them effectively This is concerned with developing self-organization in order to ensure that all necessary tasks are completed as required. Work needs to be planned, staged and undertaken in manageable doses. Similarly students need to become organised in the management of their various study materials. This is a skill that will have been built up through the students' time with the institution. On arrival, students are likely to be disorganised, but by the time they undertake some sort of research such as a research dissertation studies it is reasonable to expect this skill to be well developed. Effective Time management to achieve intended goals A key element of planning is time management. This is a skill that is demanded by most if not all employers; it is also a skill that can present problems for many students. It is not uncommon for assessed work to be completed at the last minute, with requests for time extensions to the deadline. The imposition of rigid deadlines on students' work directly mirrors the 'real world' requirements for delivery of outputs to a predetermined timescale. Developing time management skills is not easy, particularly when the deadline is some time off. One technique that may be adopted is to give the students short time-constrained activities on a regular basis. For example, the preparation of brief summary notes on gapped handouts can not only break up the formal lecture or tutorial but can also offer the chance to develop tight use of time. Poor time management is particularly a problem with research theses and dissertations. Early negotiation of interim reports, draft papers and use of formal scheduled supervision tutorials can help to ensure that materials are presented on time. (Fry et al, 2003) Students evaluate their own performance against their success criteria Criteria for success equate to what is required for the student to reach particular grades or achieve specified outcomes. The requirements become progressively more stringent as progress is made in the system. It is essential that at each step the criteria are defined clearly and presented in a manner that is understandable to the students. In some instances it will be appropriate for students to engage in the assessment process by provision of grades on their own and colleagues' performance. This is perhaps easiest achieved in oral presentations with students providing feedback to their peers on specific criteria. (Fry et al, 2003) An alternative approach is to provide the students with an item of academic writing and then ask them to act as reviewers in a manner equivalent to that used by a peer-reviewed journal-in this exercise, students can be given the specific review criteria used by a named journal from their subject discipline. This approach goes somewhat further than the simple production of a standard review of a published paper. Produce realistic solutions to complex problems While the expectation is that students will be able to deal with complex problems, there is often great merit in the development of this skill by offering, in the first instance, a series of simple and perhaps even trivial problems. The use of these simple problems in groups allows students not only to complete the task but also to discuss and debate the mechanisms through which the solution was achieved. It is desirable that 'real world' examples are used in problem-solving as complexity is increased but in the initial consideration of problem-solving this is not necessary. (Fry et al, 2003) The Role of Teacher From the above discussion of various theories of learning and behaviourism there has emerged an entire different perception of the teacher-student relationship, such perception was not considered to be important 20 years ago. But the exploration of various psychological theories of student learning have highlighted the importance of teacher-student relationship, in which assessment is used as a tool to strengthen that relationship. This reflects both a different understanding of the significance of students' knowledge and ways of knowing and of the purpose of education, the latter now being seen as providing entry into different cultural practices. In current theories the teacher's role is much more complex than it was considered some years ago: the teacher has to find ways of helping students. According to Lerman, 'find, create and negotiate their meanings' (Lerman, 1993). This involves providing activities which are meaningful and purposeful from the students' perspective and which allow them to apply and develop their understandings in explicit relation to others. The focus on meaning and purpose in learning and assessment is a central feature, which depends upon how well the teacher presents it to their students. Common to these interventions is the need to create authenticity in tasks in order to engage pupils' interests. Authenticity in tasks ensures that the links between school learning and out-of-school practices are explicit. The literature on situated cognition shows that the activities from which students' knowledge is derived are intimately linked to that knowledge. Hence, if learning is focused on abstracted school tasks and rituals, what students will acquire is ritualistic knowledge applicable only to those situations in which it is learned. Consequently, authenticity in tasks is a prerequisite for developing knowledge that can be applied in the culture. It is therefore essential for all students' learning. (Askew, 2000) The Role of Assessment The importance of assessment can be judged from the fact that it is a powerful tool, which can construct or destruct students' learning content and perspective. A teacher can use and mould this tool as and when required. By adopting different assessment styles a teacher can affect the way students' engage with their subjects. (Gipps, 1996) Feedbacks Evaluative feedback strategies Giving rewards and punishments Expressing approval or disapproval Descriptive feedback strategies Describing the reason for an incorrect answer Specifying or implying a better way to do something As with other feedback strategies, the strategy of expressing approval and disapproval could be verbal, non-verbal or written. Non-verbal strategies of expressing approval among primary children includes teacher nodding, making eye contact, smiling, laughing, putting an arm around or patting the child and taking on a mild manner in order to be approachable. Non-verbal means of expressing disapproval included pulling faces, staring hard, clicking fingers or making disapproving noises. Verbal expressions of approval include praise phrases such as 'Well done', 'Brilliant' etc. Verbal expressions of disapproval include criticisms and sometimes the best-observed method of disapproval or unappreciation is to simply ignore the student. Such method has proven to be effective among high school students. The expression of approval and disapproval is a form of evaluative feedback in that often its purpose was approval or disapproval of the pupil himself or herself: the teacher implied that she felt that work was 'Excellent' or 'Disappointing', but without relating this evaluation to specified achievement criteria. Assessment Criteria It is the responsibility of a teacher to provide the students with a clear elucidation of the course goals, Feedback induces in students: Motivation, Improvement, Skills enhancement with deeper engagement in subject. Teachers' assessment of students Students' involvement in Assessment Peer assessment Self assessment (Dann, 2002) Formative Assessment Tunstall and Gipps (1996) explain formative assessment as "Teachers using their judgements of children's knowledge or understanding to feedback into the teaching process and to determine for individual children whether to re-explain the task/ concept, to give further practice on it, or move on to the next stage". The use of the term 'formative assessment' occurs during the learning process with the resultant factor, as 'feedback' and possesses two meanings in it. First, it is linked to pupil learning and its development. Here, it is closely aligned with diagnostic assessment, which might be needed to diagnose more specific strengths and weaknesses. Second, the use of the term 'formative' refers to all those informing decisions which the teacher tends to adopt about various teaching techniques and implementations, such implementations that move the assessment into an evaluative frame 'the system is also required to be formative at the national level, to play an active part in raising standards of attainment'. Formative assessment also takes into consideration the learning styles and how those styles are taken by the students during learning process. The claim that formative assessment should raise national standards implies that the level of detail of assessment is not so much related to individual pupils' learning but to aggregate pupil data indicating national trends. The level of detail required, and thus the type of learning which might advance at a national level from such 'formative' purposes, seems to add another layer of potential ambiguity. As the proposal for a national system progresses to implementation, the balance between formative and diagnostic purposes with summative and evaluative purposes, are presented in a way, which offers unity and manageability. Such manageability does not seem apparent in schools and among teachers. The different emphasis in assessment purposes seems to operate more and more in tension. The nature of formative assessment advocated is multidimensional. In particular, the emerging emphasis concerns the 'build up a comprehensive picture of the overall achievements of a pupil'. To this end, it is often suggested that 'a broad range of assessment instruments sampling a broad range of attainments targets', should be used. Feedback results in the 'target setting' approach, which serves as actual grounds for achieving targets and goals. The reason behind this approach is simple, target setting identifies the actual weakness of an individual's performance, and when that weakness becomes a focus for effort, an action plan is taken and commenced. Formative assessment among Teachers If the process of intuition features in classroom assessment presents its methods as vague and are not transparent, Claxton (2000) should be remembered who suggested attempts to define some parameters of intuition by detailing six 'ways' of knowing which could be intuitive: Expertise: research, which focused on teachers' assessment practices before National Curriculum and assessment requirements indicated how their ability to make assessment judgements was a product of expertise. This often could not be clearly defined and was usually linked to experience (Gipps et al. 1995). With the advent of more formalised and standardised assessment procedures in relation to national summative assessment frameworks teachers seem to have been less concerned with the details of formative assessment judgements based on their established expertise but on implementing assessment which they hope will satisfy external accountability demands. Implicit learning: as teachers engage with pupils through the teaching process they develop a range of knowledge about their learning. Formative assessment continually results in a range of information being assimilated often subconsciously. Judgement: the information assimilated is used to inform the many judgements that teachers make about pupils and their own teaching that are ongoing and enable the momentum of teaching and learning to continue. Sensitivity: the teacher is able to be context specific, being sensitive to particular needs without preparing or reconsidering responses. Similarly, as teaching and learning progress novel and/or alternative progress in order to engage and motivate pupil. Creativity enables the tool of teaching to be sharp and direct in a way, which is spontaneous but based on intuitive judgements about teaching and learning. Teachers' skills are partly driven by consideration of experience both conscious and sub-conscious. Reflecting on successes and mistakes enables the practitioner to intervene more appropriately. Rumination, at an intuitive or conscious level, requires self-evaluation and assessment. Broadfoot (2000), in explicitly exploring assessment and intuition, argues that 'what is urgently needed now are the beginnings of an active search for a more humanistic, even intuitive, approach to educational assessment'. In this vein, teachers carrying out formative assessment are continually making judgements about children's responses to learning. (Gipps et al., 1995) To some extent these will be related to teachers' own mental and cultural models of learning development and achievement despite attempts in England and Wales to standardise perceptions. Teachers' own interpretations of national requirements as well as their views on pupils' needs will inevitably differ. Collaboration and discussion can offer some scope for consensus. Yet, when the complexity of learning is considered, precise statements would seem to offer only over simplistic statements. The claims are increasing with the passage of time amongst curriculum policy-makers and growing numbers of educators that the UK has a cultural problem of poor motivation for learning for the reason, which is given, is poor communication between teachers and students with lack of understanding of assessment techniques. Recent research helps erode a long-running distinction in cognitive psychology by taking to the initial beginnings of learning and teaching theories where behaviourist perspectives emphasise extrinsic motives based on external goals, performance rewards and short-term goals while humanist perspectives prioritise a hierarchy of intrinsic motives. These include striving for self-regulation of personal attributes and subject expertise, followed by desire for higher levels of creativity and fulfilment and what Maslow termed 'self actualisation'. In encouraging intrinsic motivation, cognitive psychologists explore the effects of learners' beliefs, values and emotions on attitudes to particular learning situations where the involvement of teacher and assessment is there, thereby making a triangle to follow teaching strategies that maximise intrinsic motivation and reduce extrinsic motivators. (Kathryn, 2002) thereby promoting the idea that attributions of performance and achievement of student to effort are not fruitful and productive unless work along with the mutual coordination of teacher, using assessment as an analysis tool. Work Cited Askew Susan, 2000. "Feedback for Learning": Routledge/Falmer. Place of Publication: London. Dann Ruth, 2002. "Promoting Assessment as Learning: Improving the Learning Process": Routledge Falmer. Place of Publication: London. Ecclestone Kathryn, 2002. "Learning Autonomy in Post-16 Education: The Politics and Practice of Formative Assessment": Routledge Falmer. Place of Publication: London Fry Heather, Ketteridge Steve, Marshall Stephanie, 2003. "A Handbook for Teaching & Learning in Higher Education": Kogan Page. Place of Publication: London. Gipps V. Caroline & Murphy F. Patricia, 1996. "Equity in the Classroom: Towards Effective Pedagogy for Girls and Boys": Falmer Press. Place of Publication: London. Wragg E. C., 2001. "Assessment and Learning in the Secondary School": Routledge Falmer. Place of Publication: London. Bibliography Biggs, J. (1998) 'Assessment and Classroom Learning: a Role for Summative Assessment' Assessment in Education 5 (1), pp. 103-110 Black, P. and Wiliam, D., (1998b), Inside the black Box: Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment, London, Kings College. Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B. and Wiliam, D. (2002) Working Inside the Black Box: Assessment for Learning in the Classroom Carless, D. (2005) 'Prospects for the Implementation of Assessment for Learning [in Hong Kong]' Assessment in Education 12 (1), pp. 39-54 Sutton, R., (1992), Assessment: A Framework for Teachers, London, Routledge Read More