Educational achievement and attainment - Essay Example

How educational achievement and attainment is affected by gender within the British primary school phase of education The relationship between gender and educational achievement/attainment is a complex and controversial one, especially at the vital early level of primary education (Richards, 1998). This analysis will consider the definition of gender, how it has changed over time with specific concentration on educational assumptions, the current policy developments which are underway that are attempting to alleviate concerns and an overall view of how gender actually does effect educational achievement. Some questions that will be considered are whether there are indeed innate differences in raw potential between the genders, whether differences are culturally/socially constructed and whether (and if) differences should be alleviated. First, the importance of primary education must be stressed. As Richards (1997) suggests, "the foundations in learning, thinking and feeling which it provides are essential for what comes later not only in schooling but also in life". This undeniable argument will underpin much of the discussion of gender. Second, what is gender The Oxford English Dictionary defines gender as "sexual identity, especially in relation to society or culture" and also "the condition of being female or male" (Oxford, 2007). The difference between a person's "sex" and their "gender" is an important one. Whether one is born male or female in a physical sense relates to "sex", whereas "gender" is a much wider - it is a construct of society in which especially when young, people are socialized into various norms for what it means to be 'male' or 'female', a 'boy' or a 'girl'. The distinction between gender and sex is vital, because while the vast majority of people naturally fall into the various biological imperatives of the sex that they are born into (the trans-gendered apart), gender roles are constructed by society and are more fluid/changeable (Sleeter, 2006). The traditional view of gender within British primary education fell into the constructs which were regarded as received truths so obvious that they need hardly be stated. Thus boys were regarded as 'good' at subjects such as Maths/Science, were expected to be the loudest socially, were more likely to get into fights and would be more likely to push themselves forward in class (Archer, 2003). Girls would be better at subjects such as English and languages. They were more likely to work cooperatively and in teams. They were less likely to get into fights (Archer, 2003). Before rejecting these stereotypes out of hand, they should be considered against actual evidence. Male human beings do tend to be more aggressive than females and are more likely to engage in violence at every age, including when primary children (Diamond, 2005). Males also tend to perform better on Maths/Science standardized tests than females (Baron-Cohen, 2003). Conversely, females have long been observed as being more cooperative and less prone to aggression than males within a variety of cultural contexts (Diamond, 2005). They also tend to score better on verbal tests than males (Baron-Cohen, 2003). As Baron-Cohen suggests, "the female brain is predominantly wired for empathy . . . the male brain is predominantly hard-wired for understanding and building systems" (2003). This is of course a highly controversial point of view, but one that seems to be based upon the overwhelming weight of empirical evidence. The words hard-wired are perhaps most important here. If the sex differences are indeed "hard-wired", leading to the various gender differences in both treatment within primary education and attainment/achievement, then little can be done to change them. But if, to stretch the computer metaphor, the differences between male and female are a form of software that can be adapted or even outright changed, then gender differences in educational outcomes may be more malleable. As human beings are mammals, and as all mammals exhibit clear differences in behavior, aptitude and specialization between males and females, it seems likely that human beings will be no difference from their close evolutionary relatives. The differences between male and female brains should perhaps be regarded as uncontroversial as the fact that men tend to be larger/stronger than women. It is what we do with this fact that is most important for education at all levels, particularly in the so vital primary stage. The major present quandary regarding gender at primary schools in England is that girls appear to consistently outperform boy, especially in verbally based subjects (Moffitt, 2006). As Moffitt et al. suggest, a correlation is often found between poor reading/writing performance and antisocial behavior within boys. The exact causal relationship between the two aspects of primary school education has yet to be fully determined, and seems as though in fact there is no one way relationship. Poor reading/writing and the frustration involved with it may lead to antisocial behavior, and in turn antisocial behavior may lead to poor learning skills because the child is not spending time/energy on positive learning. Another study of the perennial problem of boys' poor English skills by Newman suggests that the "apparent feminization of English" (Newman, 2005) makes boys reluctant to concentrate upon it at a very young age. Newman also argues that it is the "social context" in which boys view English that largely determines their attitude towards it. Thus if the primary school teacher and head regard English as a "girls" subject, and further, do not expect boys to do well at it, then the boys will quickly take on this attitude themselves. This is an example of a culturally supported gender stereotype at a young age. Similarly, girls will react in a negative manner to those subjects that are not regarded as 'female' in nature. But, as Myhill suggests, in general girls both behave better and perform better than boys in the primary school setting. Myhill finds that "the data illustrate how underachievers, of either gender, are the least likely group to be participating positively in the classroom and most likely to be engaged in off-task interactions" (2002). This tendency is gender-neutral, but the "boys' reluctance to participate emerges in year 1", whereas the girls only begin to play up by year 4. Myhill continues with the contention that "to a lesser extent, older higher-achieving boys begin to exhibit similar interaction patterns to the underachievers" and "by contrast, the high achieving girl remains consistently actively participant and on-task". The question arises as to whether these differences in performance/behavior are biologically based, socially based or a mixture of the two. One clue towards alleviating the problem may be seen within the work of Moss (2000), who suggests that it is a fact that "how well children can read is always a prime issue in school settings", but that "boys and girls react differently to the judgments made about their proficiency as readers, judgments which are often rendered highly visible in the classroom". According to Moss, "gender-specific models" are what is needed in the classroom:- ie. boys need male readers as models. This produces a dilemma for primary schools because a majority of primary teachers have always been, and remain, female. The subject of gender stereotypes that was considered earlier relates to this preponderance of female teachers at the primary level. Gray and Leith (2004) argue that "teachers are generally aware of gender stereotypes in the classroom and . . . despite their lack of training in gender issues, where appropriate, most attempt to challenge this type of behavior". The problem appears when teachers are "unconsciously perpetuating stereotypes" and their tendency to concentrate more upon "equality issues" for girls rather than boys. Thus if girls are being treated inequitably or in a gender-stereotypical manner, the teacher is likely to notice and attempt to rectify the situation. But inequality towards boys is often ignored or its importance is downplayed (Gray, Leith, 2004). So overall it is clear that the perception has been that the educational system was biased against girls, at least historically. But recent research has shown that boys are in fact performing worse than girls on a wide variety of different measures. It must also be stated that some studies suggest that the supposed differential between girls and boys achievement has been exaggerated. Gorard (2001) argues that far more research needs to be done of "the differences between boys and girls . . . whose nature was incompletely understood". This study further suggests that the actual differences have been exaggerated, at least at the primary level, even though "proportionately more girls are attaining high grades and more boys are attaining middle grades than might be expected" (Gorard, 2001). The difference, at least according to Gorard, is mainly found within the upper reaches of attainment rather than effecting the low-achievers. These findings seem in direct contradiction to many other studies. So turning to policy implications, both future and present, how can gender issues as they effect performance/attainment be addressed in primary schools Despite tinkering with its various provisions, British education still revolves around the National Curriculum that was adopted in 1988. There are two main aims within the National Curriculum: 1. The school curriculum should provide opportunities for all pupils to learn and to achieve. 2. The school curriculum should aim to promote pupils' spiritual, moral, social and cultural development and prepare all pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of life. (National, 1988) The stress upon all pupils has been explored in greater detail in the last few years. For example, the government has issued a series of guidelines concerning "creating effective learning environments" (nc, 2007). One of the methods suggested for creating such environments is to ensure that "stereotypical views are challenged and pupils learn to appreciate and view positively differences in others, whether arising from race, gender, ability or disability" (nc, 2007). The methods suggested for "securing motivation and concentration" are of great relevance in dealing with the different genders. The guidelines suggest that teachers should be "using teaching approaches appropriate to different learning styles" (nc, 2007) (emphasis added). These various styles should not just include the well-known differences between, for example, kinesthetic and verbal learners, but also the styles suitable for girls and boys. The basis of all learning, across the whole range of the curriculum from Maths to Art is reading. Benner's analysis (2005) of the relationship between beginning reading skills and social adjustment could act as a model for teacher concentration on this subject. This covers two broad areas: reading comprehension and the social skills of children. The study found that beginning reading skills were highly correlated to social adjustment: the better the skills the more adjusted the child tended to be. Conversely, those children with reading difficulties tended to have far higher rates of social maladjustment and even problems. Teachers need to concentrate upon both improving the reading skills of boys under their care and at the same time ensuring their social progress. As already stated, the two aspects of education:- reading and social adjustment -a re indelibly linked. Further emphasis and concentration also needs to be made to the different ways that men and women teach, and also the varying ways that boys and girls learn. While he question is rhetorical, and can never be fully answered, teachers need to constantly consider, "have you ever wondered if different genders learned differently" (Brassard, 2004). The two genders do learn in different ways, although individual boys and girls need to be regarded as unique learners with their own characteristics. The tendency is often to regard pupils as belonging to one group or another, either "boys" or "girls" and to treat them accordingly. Brassard revealed some interesting differences between male and female teachers regarding their attitudes towards pupil learning: (Brassard, 2004) While a whole book might be written on the differences found here, a number of contrasts stand out. Female teachers regard interaction between students as far more important than male teachers do, while the pattern is reversed regarding interaction with the teacher. Thus male teachers regard a more teacher-centered (rather than student-centered) educational environment as the ideal. If these tendencies are extended to the male pupils, even at this young age, then this may partially explain why boy pupils perform worse than their female counterparts. The boys expect, and perhaps even need, an environment based more upon the teacher than upon group work. The other huge contrast is the fact that female teachers regard "self-confidence" as of far greater importance than male teachers. The aggressive attitude that male human beings tend to adopt towards life, at least as compared to females, may mean that they at least appear to have more self-confidence than they actually do. If the female teacher sees this self-confidence, she is likely to pay less attention to the boys because they possess the quality that they regard as very important for achievement. Yet overall, both male and female teachers regarded "motivation" as the most important factor for pupil achievement, while only 24% regard gender as being an influence upon motivation. The rest of the results form the study reveal that gender has a profound effect upon attitude towards learning. This gap between belief and actuality needs to be a central part of any policy changes towards lessening the gender gap in performance/attainment in primary schools. Recognizing that there are differences in the way that the male and female brains learn is the first necessity. If these differences are denied for the sake of expediency or political correctness, then the gender gap will not be closed. To conclude, girls do appear to perform better than boys within UK primary schools. The exact reasons for this disparity, and the ways of tackling it are complex. The initial necessity is to attempt an objective assessment of how wide the gap between the genders is and then to formulate various strategies for closing it. In an ideal world such an assessment would be carried out without undue political influence, but because gender differences in both learning and achievement are caught up within a whole web of controversy that goes far beyond the classrooms of primary education, it is difficult to actually institute. It might be remembered that the President of the great American institution, Harvard University, was recently essentially forced to resign because he stated that different ways of male and female thinking may account for the massive disparity between male and female achievement at the pinnacle of Maths/Science. Some even suggested that no such disparity exists - despite the undeniable conclusion that a cursory glance at the names associated with scientific and mathematical advances would engender. The educational world needs to accept that the recognition of such differences, whether it shows that girls learn better than boys at an early age, or that men end up more scientifically inclined as adults - does not valorize one gender over another any more than the fact that men tend to be larger than women or that women have a greater tolerance for pain than men. We must accept the differences and then work to providing every boy and every girl the maximum opportunity to succeed within their genetically inherited, environmentally influenced and perhaps gender-dependant range of potentiality. ______________________________________ Works Cited Archer, Louise. Race, Masculinity and Schooling (Educating Boys, Learning Gender). Open University Press, London: 2003. Baron-Cohen. The Essential Difference: The Truth About the Male and Female Brain. Perseus Books, London: 2003. Benner, Gregory. Et al. "The Relationship Between the Beginning Reading Skills and Social Adjustment of a General Sample of Elementary Aged Children". Education and Treatment of Children 28 no3 250-64 Ag 2005. Brassard, Caroline. "Are Learning Patterns Different on Mars and Venus" Learning Styles, January 2004, vol. 7, no.1. Diamond, Jed. The Irritable Male Syndrome: Understanding and Managing the 4 Key Causes of Depression and Aggression. Rodale books, New York: 2005. Gorard, S. Rees, G. Salisbury, J. "Investigating the patterns of differential attainment of boys and girls at school". British Educational Research Journal, 27, 125-129. 2001. Gray, C. Leith, H. "Perpetuating gender stereotypes in the classroom: a teacher perspective." Educational Studies, 30, pp. 3-17. 2004. Moffitt, TE. Et al. "Revisiting the Association Between Reading Achievement and Antisocial Behavior: New Evidence of an Environmental Explanation From a Twin Study". Child Development, 77, 72-85. 2006. Moss, G. "Raising Boys' Attainment in Reading: some principles for intervention" Reading, 34 (3), 101-106. Myhill, D. "Bad Boys and Good Girls Patterns of Interaction and Response in Whole Class Teaching. British Educational Research Journal, 28 339-352. 2002. Newman, E. "Lads and English". English in Education. Vol. 39, #1., 32-42. Richards, Colin. Taylor, Philip. How Shall We School Our Children: Primary Education and Its Future. Taylor & Francis, London: 1998. Sleeter, Christine. Grant, Carl. Making Choices for Multicultural Education: Five Approaches to Race, Class and Gender. Wiley, New York: 2006. The National Curriculum, 1988. The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Oxford: 2007. www.nc.uk.net/nc_resources/html/inclusion.shtml Read More