Sociological Theories of Education - Essay Example

?Sociological Theories of Education Introduction Shimbori (2009) argues that there are several social s established to assist citizens achieve their potential. Education is one of the social institutions established to assist citizens achieve the desired knowledge and experience that can assist in social development. Education as a social institution involves teaching formal knowledge such as arithmetic, writing and reading. In addition, education also involves teaching morals, ethics, and values to the society. Education as a social institution prepares the young people for entry into the society thereby improving the process of socialization. In the study of education as a social institution, researchers determine how education affects and are affected by social structures, experiences and outcomes. This paper defines sociology in education. Further, the paper discusses the purpose of education, the labeling theory, tripartite system, and comprehensive system. The national curriculum in the United Kingdom and the Swan report will form part of the policies that have been developed to improve the level of education. Other factors that affect education such as race, class, gender, and ethnicity have also been discussed. The ideas of Max Weber (1964-1920) and WEB Bois (1868-1963) will be discussed in relation to education. What is sociology in education? According to Flecha (2011), Sociology in education involves two separate levels of analysis: macro-level analysis and micro-level analysis. Macro-level analysis involves determining the effects of social forces such as culture, politics, economics, race, gender, class, and ethnicity affect education in the society. Social forces create variation in schools there y presenting challenges to the disadvantaged. Sociology in education also involves determining the effect of other social institutions on the educational systems. Micro-level analysis identifies how variation in school practices contributes to differences in each student outcome. In particular, when schools have different teaching methods or different practices, individual student can be affected. According to Bailey et al (2013), WEB Bois (1868-1963) argued that African-Americans’ liberation could not be achieved without education and nee vocational training. In the current society, discrimination in the education system can be achieved through systems and policies that eliminate discrimination and promote ‘education for all’. According to WEB Bois (1868-1963), education should teach certain values such as the capacity to endure, love for beauty, avoidance of luxury, and a concern for courtesy. The purpose of education Randall (2007) writes that education is a process of acquiring data and knowledge, as well as learning different forms of behavior and competency in a specific field. The purpose of education involves cultivating human minds with values and principles that assist in determining the right and the wrong. The purpose of education also incorporates learning skills in certain subjects that assist in achieving overall development. In essence, education is a lifelong process and never ends. The purpose of education, therefore, entails a continuous change in the direction in the life of human beings. In the society, human beings realize the importance of education when they encounter difficulties. According to Carpenter and  Haning (2011), in personal and professional development, education has a purpose of assisting each person to gain skills that can be used to overcome personal and professional difficulties. The basic purpose of education involves learning how to write, read, and understand concepts. The skills taught in the process of acquiring literacy remain for the whole life. It should be noted that writing, reading and understanding skills improve all the time a person reads and thinks. Education’s purpose is to teach a person how to acquire social and professional skills necessary for the socialization process in the society. Maintaining social relations in the society cannot be achieved when persons do not appreciate the role of education. According to Hodge (2012), Education also teaches human beings how to think and analyze the world. However, education cannot tell human beings what to think and what to do. Education’s aim is to create the necessary understanding of the right and wrong in the society. The ability to think creatively and develop imaginations represents effective outcomes of education. Education should create individuals able to learn without assistance from other people. However, individuals should be assisted to learn Lessons not learned already. In professional development, education has a purpose of assisting persons to achieve career objectives that create conditions for economic and social growth. Knowledge as a result of education assists human beings with numerous resources, when compared to illiterate members of the society. The National Curriculum The national curriculum in England, Wales and Northern Ireland is set of subjects and standards used by primary and secondary schools. These subjects and standards ensure that students learn similar content. The national curriculum also covers which subjects should be taught and the standards pupils should meet in each subject. However, other types of schools such as academies and private schools are not compelled to the national curriculum. Academies are expected to teach the balanced-based curriculum including English, math and science. Religious education must also form part of the curriculum in the academies (Gov.UK, 2013). The national curriculum is programmed in to blocks of years referred to as ‘key stages’ (KS). At the end of each key stage, pupils will be assessed formally by the teacher to measure their progress. In each subject, teachers are expected to follow a program of study. The program of study describes lessons to be learned by pupils. In addition, programs of study also involved attainment targets split into 8 levels for each subject. Parents receive a school report at the end of each year informing them on the level the pupil has reached (Gov.UK, 2013). 1. Key stage 1&2: compulsory subjects include English, math, science, history, design and technology, geography, art and design, music, physical education, and information and communication technology. Other schools also teach citizenship, foreign languages, and personal, social and health education (PSHE) (Gov.UK, 2013). Key stage 1 tests include reading, writing, speaking, listening, math, and science. The teacher uses the child’s work such as spoken work and homework to determine the level of the child. Key stage 2 tests involve English reading, math, grammar, punctuation and spelling. The tests are administered in May and lasts for less than 5 hours (Gov.UK, 2013). 2. Key stage 3&4: pupils are subjected to compulsory curriculum subjects such as math, English, science, history, geography, foreign languages, designs and technology, art and design, music, physical education, citizenship, and ICT. Schools are also expected to provide religious education as well as sex education Key stage 4 involves GCSE exams that assist students to achieve national qualifications. Core subjects at stage 4 include English, math, and science. In addition, foundation subjects include ICT, physical education, and citizenship. Schools are also expected to offer at least one subject among; humanities, foreign languages, arts, and design and technology. Religious education and sex education are compulsory at stage 4 (Gov.UK, 2013). 3. Compulsory subjects: students are expected to study career education from age 9 onwards. In addition, students should study sex and relationship education from year 7 onwards. Exams are not compulsory in these subjects. Sex and relationship education become compulsory from age 11 onwards. Students are taught about reproduction, sexuality, and sexual health. However, the subject should not promote any early sexual activity and sexual orientation. All schools are expected to develop a written sex education policy which should be given to all parents. Religious education should be taught in schools. However, parents can withdraw their children from the religious education lessons. Pupils can also choose to avoid religious education once they reach 18 years. Further, local councils are expected to decide of the religious education syllabus. Faith schools and academies are expected to set their own religious education syllabus (Gov.UK, 2013). The Swann Report Swann report was carried out to determine the educational achievement of minorities in the United Kingdom. According to the Swan report, racism existed in educational institutions as well as individual levels. The British society is a multi-racial population; however, racism affected the education of minorities. The swan report also documented educational policies established in minority communities. In the report, attitudes and behavior towards ethnic minorities should change amongst the white majority towards the minorities. The white majority viewed the minority communities as incapable of achieving educational success. In particular, the West Indian children were labeled as underachieving students at school (Napier Press, 2013). The swan report also argued that Asian students’ performance can be compared to the white majority; however, differences could be identified between subgroups. The report also argued that lower IQ among West Indians was not viewed as a solid explanation for low grades in schools. Further, the report documented that ethnic minorities suffer discrimination in terms of housing and employment. As a result, minority groups do not get an equal opportunity to achieve educational performance in an indirect way because they do not get enough resources to support education. Furthermore, the report argued that ethnic minorities in the United Kingdom suffer discrimination at school involving bullying, racism, and negative views from the teacher. Teacher stereotyping explained under the labeling theory was found to be affecting the performance of minority groups in higher education (Napier Press, 2013). Swann report recommended for ‘education for all’. Education for mall was to be guaranteed through eradication of discrimination arising from the white majority. Education for all was also aimed at assisting all students to achieve their full potential. The Tripartite System was discredited in the swan report as an ineffective system that contributes to high levels of stereotyping and discrimination against minorities. In addition, the Tripartite System also discriminated against students who could not pass the 11+ exam at the end of primary education. Education for all was, therefore, necessary in removing stereotypes and systems that could not assist the United Kingdom provide education to all group (Napier Press, 2013). Swann recommended that ethnic minority education could be improved through policies that eradicate racism. For instance, the government was expected to introduce a national curriculum that would promote ‘education for all’ and reduce the negative statistics of how minority groups perform in education. The government was also expected to changes laws governing the education system. New laws were to be agents of socialization. Furthermore, schools were to be changed into social institutions that shape the values and morals of students. In the swan report, education system should not simply reinforce existing values, but change or eradicate discriminatory values in the mind of the white majority (Napier Press, 2013). Tripartite System According to Bulle (2008), Tripartite System involves categorizing the education system of England, Wales and Northern Ireland into three types: grammar, technical, and secondary modern. Students are enrolled into each school based on their performance in the eleven plus exam held in the final year of a pupil’s primary school education. According to Sir Cyril Burt, educational ability of pupils is inherited from teachers and that this ability can be proved through exams. Crook et al (1999) writes that the Tripartite System involves testing all children in their final year of primary education, to ascertain whether they inherited the ability to attend grammar school, as well as other schools, which were not biased towards classics such as Latin. More able students than their colleagues were allowed to attend grammar schools. Grammar schools were believed to be suitable for formal traditional education compared to other types of schools. Technical and secondary modern were believed to have varying degrees of vocational work. In the Tripartite System, the 11+ exam was described as a divisive and a labeling experience in early education. Browne (2011) writes that Children who failed the 11+ exam were labeled as failures. As a result, labeling students as failures at an early stage affects their development in higher education. Several people viewed secondary moderns as institutions where students learned vocational skills. In addition, students in the secondary moderns were viewed failures who would become laborers. The results of the 11+ exam determine whether a student was a failure or successful. In the years, the 11+ exam was administered in England, and Wales, several parents in the upper social class enrolled their children into private schools. According to Power, Edwards, Whitty and Wigfall (2003), the middle class was viewed as a group that preferred the 11+ system. Yossi, Arum, Gamoran, and Menachem (2007) write that Grammar schools were viewed as institutions beyond the ability of the working class children, even if they managed to get an entry. In England, Kent is the only county that continues to use the 11+ exam system. After the introduction of the 11+, progress had been made for the introduction of the 13+ exam which enables children who failed the 11+ to succeed at 13+. Further, the 16+ system was also introduced to allow pupils access to a grammar school based on their performance in the GCSE exams regardless of their social background. Power, Edwards, Whitty and Wigfall (2003) argue that the 11+ system was, therefore discriminative based on social class of children. In addition, the 11+ system labeled pupils as failures who could not achieve meaningful development in grammar schools. Comprehensive System Currently, Kent is the only county that administers the 11+ exam across the county. In addition, Kent still places trust in the grammar school system. However, in all other parts of England and Wales, a comprehensive system has been adopted to replace the 11+ system. Parental support has enabled the education system to disband and replace the 11+ system that labels and discriminates pupils at an early age. Yates (1971) writes that in the early 1960s, the Burt’s recommendations were discredited and replaced with the comprehensive schools. The labor government introduced the comprehensive system under the Harold Wilson government. The reason behind the implementation of the comprehensive system is based on its ability to serve a community where all students can be enrolled regardless of their ability. According to Edmund and  Rebell (007), the labor government, under Harold Wilson, believed that comprehensive system of education would create schools as part of the community they served. In the 11+ system, grammar schools selected pupils from a larger area and any sense of community spirit was impossible to achieve. The negative implications of the 11+ system are the theory behind the establishment of the comprehensive system. Comprehensive system guaranteed a level playing field, with no pupil being labeled as a failure because they have not managed to get a good grade, in an exam at the end of their primary education. According to Johnson (2004), Comprehensive schools were introduced to assist pupils achieve equal opportunity, but not divide pupils at an early age into different groups on the basis of questionable instrument selection. The comprehensive schools were reforms of the 11+ system which acknowledged the importance of social development than academic success. In the comprehensive system, a cohesive society could be guaranteed where pupils are not separated at an early stage of education. Further, the comprehensive system aimed at recognizing talent and forms of intelligence. Davies (2000) writes that the comprehensive system has also been criticized because bright children miss out on decent skills training. In particular, critics believe that mixed ability schooling under the comprehensive system is inspired by a socialist dogma but not educational practice. The mixed ability schooling has been described by critics as a regrettable and damaging political step which affects the ability of bright students. According to critics, the comprehensive system has led to the rise of soft subjects at GCSE, thereby affecting the standards of A-levels and the over-expansion of university places. As a result, students have been forced into pointless degree courses. Labeling Theory Labeling theory was introduced by Becker (1951, 1963) in the process of studying deviance and its application to the study of teachers’ interaction with students. Becker argued that problems are only problems because teachers label them as problems (Becker, nd). In particular, the argument can be used to support using a mobile phone in class until the teacher labels it as bad behavior. In addition, ‘answering back’ to teachers becomes offense because teachers have the power to label it as offense. In the education, teachers use the label of ‘deviant’ to make students accept and internalize rules or believe that some actions are wrong (criminology.fsu.edu, 2013). In education, labeling theory is used to the disadvantage of students. When teachers label students based on categories such as ethnicity, gender, and class, some students may be written off as incapable of achieving educational success (Becker, nd). As a result, the labeling theory is used to set up a point of reference in which low grades are noticed, and achievement of students discounted based on the labels accorded to them. Students can also be labeled when they are informed by teachers that they can never achieve nay success. Labels such as ‘not good at sciences’ have been used to limit the ability of students to achieve their full potential in the classroom. When negative labels are internalized by teachers and students, they are carried into new situations such as higher education. As a result, the student is set up to fail because of labels accorded by teachers and other authorities. Teachers can avoid labeling students by being fair and respectful in the class. In particular, the teacher should find something good in the contributions of students even when they are not relevant to the concepts discussed. However, the teacher should be cautious not to make students believe that they have right answers when they do no not. In addition, the teacher should ensure that their judgments do not go beyond the evidence/contributions of students. When a student’s contribution does not meet the requirements, it does not mean that the student is hopeless and not bright enough to achieve success in the class. Most Convincing: Social Identity Theory According to Tajfel and Turner 1979, intergroup discrimination is common in the society. Tajfel and Turner identified the conditions that lead to discrimination in the society. In group members have a sense of belonging used to discr8iminate against out-group (Stets and Burke, 2000). According to Rupert (2000), the theory assumes that persons do not have one ‘personal self’, but several selves that meet the guidelines of group membership. In the society, social contexts force human beings to think, feel, and act on the basis of race, gender, ethnicity, and social class. Broady-Preston (2009) argues that social identity, therefore, is a perception held by human beings and how they are associated with any group membership. Groups such as class, family, race, and ethnicity are sources of pride and self-esteem for several people. Out-group members are discriminated because they do not have common characteristics they share with the other majority groups. In the current society, groups assist members to achieve a sense of social identity or a sense of belonging to the social class. In the process of improving self-image, human beings enhance the status of the group they belong. For instance, white majority in the United Kingdom view Indians and Asians as underachievers in the school. Prejudices views against other groups can be viewed as discriminatory are not based on any research (Stets and Burke, 2000). According to Wright, C(2000), Race and ethnicity form part of the social identity theory used to discriminate against other minorities. Race and ethnicity has been used in the United Kingdom, to discriminate against other minorities such as Asians and Indians against academic achievement, employment, assessment, social interactions, and curriculum development. Afro-Caribbean, West Indians, and Asians have been discriminated because they do not belong to the minority population. In the social identity theory, the white majority population view West Indians, Asians, and afro-Caribbean as underachievers in schools. Multicultural education based on ‘education for all’ should be implemented to assist minority groups in the United Kingdom to achieve success without discrimination. In the swan report, Asians, West Indians, and Afro-Caribbean have been discriminated because the white majority labels them as underachievers. Currently, women are committed to educational achievement than boys. However, the education system is still patriarchal because of male domination. Wright, C(2000) argues that gender differences can be noted concerning subject choices in schools. Despite the reversal of the trend form 1990s, traditional definitions of girls based on masculinity and femininity still takes place within the education system. According to Cole (1995), Girls continue to be labeled as underachievers in sciences and math subjects. In addition, certain subjects such as cooking are aimed at girls doing housework. Further, ‘food technology’ is also viewed, as a subject design to describe girls in terms of patriarchal society. Gender stereotyping also exists in schools because the society believes that boys fits better into the workforce than girls. Race, gender, class and ethnicity, therefore, fit into the assumptions developed in the social identity theory. The white majority in the United Kingdom view Asians, West Indians, and afro-Caribbean as minority groups, which cannot achieve educational success. Max Weber (1964-1920) talks of social inequalities that limit the ability of minority groups to achieve educational success. In particular, social stratification into groups based on race, gender, ethnicity, and class affect minority groups. From 1900 to 1980, underachievement by girls was common in the United Kingdom. In particular, girls were less likely to obtain A-levels than boys. The social identity theory explains how the society discriminated against students based on their gender. Women were viewed as domestic servants whose educational achievement was meaningless in the society. From 1990s, there was a reversal of the trend, girls have become better achievers than boys in school. Conclusion The purpose of education involves cultivating human minds with values and principles that assist in determining the right and the wrong. The purpose of education also incorporates learning skills in certain subjects that assist in achieving overall development. In essence, education is a lifelong process and never ends. The national curriculum in England, Wales and Northern Ireland is set of subjects and standards used by primary and secondary schools. These subjects and standards ensure that students learn similar content. The national curriculum also covers which subjects should be taught and the standards pupils should meet in each subject. The Swan report, racism existed in educational institutions as well as individual levels. The British society is a multi-racial population, however, racism affected the education of minorities. The swan report also documented educational policies established in minority communities. The Tripartite System categorized the education system of England, Wales and Northern Ireland into three types: grammar, technical, and secondary modern. This system was discredited because of widespread discrimination against children from lower social class as well as children who could not pass the 11+ exam. The comprehensive system was introduced to replace the Tripartite System so that pupils could not be separated at a young age. The national curriculum was also developed to introduce ‘education for all’ principle. References Bailey, R et al. 2013. Du Bois in Our Time. The Massachusetts Review, ISSN 0025-4878, 10/2013, Volume 54, Issue 3, p. 481. Becker, H (nd). Labeling Theory. 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Stratification in higher education: a comprehensive study. Stanford University Press. Read More