Adult Development and Adult Learning - Article Example

? Adult Development and Adult Learning Application of Adult Development to Adult Learning Introduction A major element of effective adult learning that is usually ignored is the role of adult development and how it affects adult learning. This issue is overlooked mostly by adult educators because most people base the knowledge on education rather than on the psychology of development or human development. It is, therefore, worthwhile to note that the characteristics of development of adult learners need to influence the strategies of teaching and learning that are under implementation. This article provides an overview on the various aspects of adult development, how they affect adult learning, and the major issues surrounding adult development. The article also explores the theories of adult learning including andragogy, self directed learning, and transformational learning. Adult development Growth is the physical change that results from an increase in cell size or numbers. Growth can be quantitatively measured using the growth indicators such as weight, height, dentition, and the size of bones. On the other hand, development can be defined as a modification or change in the capacity if an individual to function, or the process of skill progress or enhancement. It is the capacity of an individual to adapt to his surrounding environment and, therefore, regarded as the behavioral growth aspect (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010). The characteristics of adult development are in the forms of physical, cognitive, social and emotional domains present in an individual’s lifespan. There are three stages of life that occur in adulthood which include young, middle and older adulthood. These stages have characteristics that are unique and are evident in every stage of the four human development domains. For instance, the developmental characteristics of older adulthood include social characteristics such as loss of key family members and significant friends, prioritizing engagements and social activities, and beginning of transition to retirement. The physical aspects of growth include slowing down of reaction time, increase in the instance of chronic disease, decline in the sensory systems and physical abilities. Emotional development is signified with an increase in attempts to maintain personality traits along with reflection, ability to resolve conflict by applying integrity instead of despair. The last domain is cognitive development whereby an individual develops memory lapses, slower learning abilities, or mental abilities sufficient for accomplishing their daily chores (Jarvis, 2004). Maturation is mainly characterized nervous system changes and the brain, and aids in the stimulation of cognitive and physical or motor skills. The patterns of maturation are innate and programmed in the genetic code. During adulthood, people experience various challenges that affect their ability to go about their daily duties.  Development begins in a concrete or straightforward manner, and proceeds to the complex mechanisms. Problem solving and reasoning abilities are inspired from the language and development of cognitive skills. For instance, the ability to classify or relate similar items implies the acquisition of cognitive skills. Concrete thoughts are usually manifested in the initial level of thinking which describes or gives a functional relationship between two subjects. Further advancement in the development of cognitive skills is manifested by a more complex or advanced understanding of the comparisons being made, as well development of a high capability of classifying objects (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010). Issues surrounding adult development and their influence on adult learning Development is categorized as a continuous process in which the development of an individual signifies addition of new skills to the ones already acquired, thus forming a basis for further mastery or achievement of skills. The process of development depends on the aspects of learning and maturation, which refers to the sequences of processes that are characterized by biological growth and development (Kiely, Sandmann, & Truluck, 2004). The universal understanding of adult development and adult learning is still not well defined despite the availability or resources such as books, journals, and educative conferences established to create awareness on the different aspects of adult learning all over the world. Cranton (1994) stated that: Perspectives on adult learning have changed dramatically over the decades. Adult learning has been viewed as a process of being freed from the oppression of being illiterate, a means of gaining knowledge and skills, a way to satisfy learner needs, and a process of critical self-reflection that can lead to transformation. The phenomenon of adult learning is complex and difficult to capture in any one definition (p. 3). The efforts of understanding adult development and learning have only resulted into a multitude of domains and contexts of theories surrounding adult development and adult learning. However, the efforts directed in developing all the relevant theories have caused less significant impact on adult learning. Development of theories in adult development and learning is still hindered by the strong influence of myths that are deeply rooted in the minds of adult learners. These aspects of adult learning are judged by communicative, epistemological and criteria of critical analysis. These myths consist of various academic orthodoxies found in adult education. They sometimes describe adult learning to be interesting, and an excellent practice of the learning experience that satisfies the needs of adult learners (Fenwick & Tennant, 2004). The theory of human development provides a foundation of implementing the features of adult development in the settings of adult learning. Adult development also determines the readiness, motivation, and process of adult learning. A fit or conducive environment can be set by anticipating the needs of adult learning that come up at different points in life, and also be aware of how the events occurring in life can inhibit or facilitate various situations of adult learning. These conditions can be set in order to provide experiences that are positive of productive for both the instructor and the learner. Daloz (1999) stated that: The proper aim of education is to promote significant learning. Significant learning entails development. Development means successively asking broader and deeper questions of the relationship between oneself and the world...Education should promote development. A good education ought to help people to become both more receptive and more discriminating about the world: seeing, feeling, and understanding more, yet sorting the pertinent from the irrelevant with ever finer touch, increasingly able to integrate what they see and to make meaning of it in ways that enhance their ability to go on growing .... we develop by progressively taking apart and putting together the structures that give our lives meaning (p. 24). There is a vital link between adult development and adult learning that is based on the assumption that adults are inherently self directed, and are products of the accumulation of personal experiences that are unique. The desire of adults to learn stems from the desire to perform the tasks encountered in the process of development (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007). However, awareness of these theories aids in provision of sustainable and effective activities of professional development learning processes. These theories address the various forms of human development, differences in learning processes, concerns, benefits and challenges in the learning processes. The theories of andragogy, self directed learning and transformational learning will be discussed. Andragogy theory Andragogy is simply another model of assumptions about learners to be used alongside the pedagogical model of assumptions, thereby providing two alternative models for testing out the assumptions as to their 'fit' with particular situations. Furthermore, the models are probably most useful when seen not as dichotomous but rather as two ends of a spectrum, with a realistic assumption in a given situation falling in between the two ends (Knowles, 1980, p. 43). The concept of andragogy arises when the there is proper or effective learning of adults when they are active participants, instead of passive learners in the learning process. An instructor would thus be required to prepare his module of training, in order to incorporate the participants or learners in the program so that they remain to be active learners. In the aspect of andragogy, the learners are commonly referred to as a participant while facilitators or trainers are the people carrying out the teaching process or instruction. Andragogy involves a style of learning that is independent and adapts to real life situations or problems that are encountered by the learners. The objectives of learning in andragogy are inflexible and predetermine with learning to be based on the technical details supplied by the facilitators or trainers. One assumption of andragogy is that participants have sufficient experience in terms of contributing to the learning process. Active methods of training or instructing are applicable in this case such as role playing and exercises. A learner centered approach is also useful whereby the learners have considerable influence on the pace and timing of learning activities. The participants also act as primary resources for examples and ideas, with their involvement being crucial in determining the attainment of success (Merriam & Brockett, 1997). The andragogical model requires the adult participants to discover the importance of whatever they are to learn before they go into the process of studying it. This forms the first component of andragogical learning, which is the initial stage or prior to training. In this initial stage, the participants need to be convinced of the desire to learn. The model also requires the adult participants to feel responsible for their own training or learning process. This arises when the adult participants have achieved the self concept of independence and are, therefore, obliged to develop an inner psychological need to be seen and treated by others as having the capability of self direction. These participants tend to resist or oppose circumstances whereby they feel that other people are imposing their wills on them. This situation can result into a serious problem in adult education. This is because they revert back into their situation of previous school or learning experiences the moment they get involved in training or education activities. Andragogical training allows students to be handled in a way of showing that they have the capability of self-directed learning. This concept also places a significant value on the experience of the participants because they get into the learning process with the insight grounded on their previous life experience (Wodlinger, 2007). Another assumption of the andragogical model is that the adult participants become ready and eager to learn, when they feel the urge of learning about something that links up with their life experiences or situations. It enables the participants to cope up with life situations during training. Participants are also problem centered in that the learning process must relate to a problem that they have witnessed in life situations. The model also assumes that the adult participant will respond to the influence of external motivators. However, sometimes the most powerful sources of motivation are quality of life or job satisfaction. These motivations enable the adult participants to learn primarily through internal pressures and secondarily through external pressures (Merriam, 2008). Self-Directed Learning Self directed learning refers to the situation where the learner is in charge of most of the learning experiences and activities. Self directed learning is different from self paced learning, where the participants are only in charge or responsible for what is availed to them by their instructor or trainer. The psychological meaning of the term adult can be described as an individual who has gained the self concept of being responsible or in charge of his or her own actions, as well as being in a position to his or own decisions and accepting the consequences involved in risk taking. Adults usually develop an inner desire for other people to see them as being able to take responsibility for their own actions. Instructors or trainers are, therefore, encouraged to design the program of training that makes the adult learners experience what they would have in their childhood. This involves directing them on what, how, when and where to learn (Brookfield, 2005). Gessner (1956) quoted Lindeman as he addressed the need for self-directed learning and how it was played out in the classroom: None but the humble become good teachers of adults. In an adult class the student's experience counts for much of the teacher's knowledge... shared authority. In conventional education, the pupils adapt themselves to the curriculum offered, but in adult education the pupils aid in formulating the curricula... under democratic conditions authority is of the group (p. 69). The concept of self directed learning by adult learners is itself a setup of the learning process. It involves learning on ones own which places the key to having an experience of learning in the self directed context. It entails the learner being in a situation to take primary responsibility or in charge of planning learning activities, implementing them and carrying out his or her own learning assessment. Self directed learning involves participation that is viewed as almost universal. Statics indicate that approximately 90 percent of the human population is involved with at least one or several activities of self directed learning, in a period of one year. Self directed learning does not necessarily involve a linear format or following a definite program of sequential steps, especially when it involves adult learners. In essence, the process of self directed learning takes place via chance and design depending on the experiences, interests and action of the adult learners in which they get involved in by themselves. Self directed learning does also not imply that the learning process should take place in isolation, but rather the concerned parties should seek assistance and guidance from experts, friends, family members, or acquaintances, in the both the processes of planning and implementing the learning activities (Wodlinger, 2007). Transformational learning Transformational learning is a learning process derived from the challenges experienced in one’s lifetime. The learning process together with the elements acquired during learning always last for a long time or even a lifetime, and changes the life of the individual concerned by bringing new meaning to his or her life. Transformative learning involves learning as individuals figure out meanings or usefulness of their own lives (Gaylie, 2005). It is an essential element of adult education because it does not only involve the setup of classroom learning but rather life experiences. This is beneficial to adult learners as the entire process of making meaning to one's life can cause tremendous change or transformation to a learner’s family, profession, or perception of the world. Mezirow & Caffarella (1999) stated that learning "can consist of a change in one of our beliefs or attitudes" (p. 320). The cycle of transformational learning involves several steps that involve the seeing or perceiving a weighty problem, searching for answers, handling the problem, adapting to the new changes by making them part of the everyday life. This process involves a dramatic change in the way the adult learners see themselves in their own world. The first step in transformational change is to recognize the existence of the problem, and figuring out what the problem entails and its significance to one’s life. Subsequently, the learner has to confront the problem intensely by maintaining their chill and sharing the problem with other significant people. The next step for the learner is to figure out a solution which can only be accomplished after identifying the problem. The final stage of the learning process of transformational change involves integrating a new set of perspectives by finding a new pattern of life where one can adapt to living with the problem with minimal impact to oneself, or attempting to involve in different activities (Mezirow, 1991). Transformational learning can be characterized by painful events or a lot of thinking and reflection especially for adult learners. The process of transformational learning also involves different phases that can be challenging during the learning process. These include self examination, reintegration, critical assessment of assumptions, experiences of disorienting dilemma, recognizing similar experiences that other people have gone through, formulation an action plan, and exploring the process involved in transformational learning (Merriam, 2008). Conclusion The experiences and external environment of an individual also influence the achievement of optimal development. An individual’s potential can be gained through a variety experiences as well as a stimulating environment. Different transformations occur in everyone's lifetime, which is characterized by various aspects of change in an individual’s life in the course of development. A noble means of addressing the teaching strategies is to be aware of the characteristics of development that are categorized by life or development stages. Therefore, it would be necessary for an instructor or teacher to make use of the various characteristics of development in order to avoid strenuous teaching plans, timing of learning activities, unexercised or unfamiliar learning skills. It would also be essential to adapt learning activities that recognition rather than recall of information. At the same time, it would be noteworthy to consider the notion that there are a lot of capabilities in various adult learners since only generalities are portrayed in the developmental characteristics (Kiely, Sandmann, & Truluck, 2004). References Brookfield, S., (2005). The power of critical theory for adult learning and teaching, Maidenhead; Open University Press.  From: Cranton, P. (1994). Understanding and Promoting Transformative Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.  Daloz, Laurent A. (1999). Mentor: Guiding the Journey of Adult Learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc. Fenwick, T. & Tennant, M. (2004). Understanding adult learners. In G. Foley (Ed.), Dimensions of adult learning: Adult education and training in a global era (pp. 55-73). Crows Nest, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin.  Gaylie, V., (2005). The Power of Critical Theory: Liberating Adult Learning and Teaching, Teachers College Record. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Gessner, R., (1956). 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