Abraham Maslow - Research Paper Example

? In 1943, Abraham Maslow the founder of Humanistic Psychology published his monumental work “A Theory of Motivation”. This is the first time, in the history of psychology; the inner side of the human mind was presented thru the study of human needs, desire, and behavior and not thru the stringent researches over animals or thru the behavior of anomalous humans. We are born, on this earth, to satisfy individual needs while approaching specific goals. Abraham Maslow studied to find out if there exists a framework of needs that could be applied to the human race, which at the same time serves as motivation. This work in detail studies this issue in order to determine if we humans could satisfy our inner desire to achieve the ultimate goal of our lives. Introduction In 17-th century, an English Philosopher Thomas Hobbes (“Thomas Hobbes”, 2009), who began his journey by giving questions about mind and language, and then worked towards questions in political philosophy, established the beginning of the modern age psychology. Though he focused on political and religious material, but worked thru issues about senses, imagination, knowledge, language, and passions. Other contemporary philosophers (Munger, 2003) like Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and G.W. Leibinz contributed in this progress by studying human mind’s relation to the body. Further development in psychology stressed interaction of physiology to psychology. Later development established psychology as science, and concluded that mental activity could be quantified thru research. Charles Darwin using the concept of principles of natural selection brought further development in psychology. Contribution of principles of the unconscious mind by Sigmund Freud laid the foundation of psychoanalytical model. Different fields of sciences, like education, anthropology, and medicine borrowed this model in their disciplines. In the 1920s and 30s American Psychologist John B. Watson (Munger, 2003) introduced a concept in psychology where he explained animal and human behavior thru environmental stimuli. According to his suggestion, psychology should involve solely with sensory stimuli and behavioral response. Others at the same time suggested that psychology should investigate human thought and behavior as a whole, instead of breaking it down into isolated instances of stimulus and response. The aforementioned discussion points out that psychology is a discipline that studies behavior of humans and other animals in their interaction with the surrounding world. Traditional concept of psychology is perceived thru restoring imbalanced mental activity to a normal condition. Traditional psychology did not pay much attention to the concept of human potential that conceals what humans can become. In other words, traditional psychology paid remarkably little attention to the psychological development of human, how to generalize it, and what mechanisms controls it. In the 1950s and 60s Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers developed a new concept of psychology (Boeree) that considered the psychological growth of people who are properly adjusted. This method is named as Humanistic Psychology, which asserts people make rational, conscious decisions regarding their lives and suggests that individuals tend to reach toward their greatest potential only after solving issues related to specific needs. Thus, this theory incorporates the possibility of human actualization into its practice. The aim of this work is to examine the life of Abraham Maslow, his concept of the model of human needs, its interpretation, analysis, and application. Abraham Maslow: Highlights from Biography Abraham Maslow, a son of Jewish Immigrant from Russia was born on April 1, 1908 in Brooklyn, New York and died in California on June 8, 1970 (“Abraham Maslow”). He passed a lonely childhood in massive studies. He graduated from a prestigious boys school in Brooklyn and continued his education at the College of the City of New York. Later he ended up at University of Wisconsin and earned; a bachelor degree in 1930, a master degree in psychology in 1931, and a Ph.D. in 1934. During this period, he researches monkey behavior with Harry Harlow (Boeree). In 1928, he married his cousin Bertha, and they had 2 daughters. One year after graduation from Wisconsin, Maslow returned to New York to work with Thorndlike (August 31, 1874 – August 9, 1949). Thorndlike was working on Animal behavior and later developed theory connectionism. While working at Columbia, Maslow became interested in research on human Sexuality (Boeree). In 1937, he, started working as a professor at the Brooklyn College and continued until 1951. At that time, he met newly immigrant European intellectuals, like Adler, Fromm, Horney. At Brooklyn College, he developed a close relationship with psychologist Max Wertheimer and anthropologist Ruth Benedict. These two people (“Abraham Maslow”) became his research objects, and his observation and analysis over them later formed the foundation for his theories on human potential and psychological well-being. In 1951, he joined Brandies University and stayed there until 1969. At Brandies, he chaired the Department of psychology. In 1954, he published Motivation and Personality. In 1962, he founded the Association of Humanistic psychology. At Brandies, he met Kurt Goldstein, the pioneer of neuropsychology. It was at Brandies, when he began his journey towards revealing the concept humanistic psychology. The ultimate result of his journey was revealed thru his startling psychological theory – Hierarchy of Needs. Groundwork for Hierarchy of Needs Needs, Desire, and Motivation (Linder) are foundations of both animal and human behavior. Needs can be assumed as a force with prefixes like survival, cultural, intellectual and social parameters. Desire (Prabhuji ) can be seen as an appetite with prefixes like physical, sexual, intellectual, emotional parameters. At the same time, desire drives and controls human beings; it is the motivation that lies behind every action, the power and energy that causes all movement. According to E.R. Higgins, a professor of psychology at Columbia University, motivation (Higgins, 1994) can be defined as an internal effort to satisfy unsatisfied needs. Motivation is a psychological process that generates the force (needs) to satisfy appetite (desire). Needs, desire, and motivation are intermingled and become the sources of hierarchy of needs. Robert Kreitner defined motivation (Kreitner, 2008) as a psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction. Arthur Bedeian defined motivation as a commitment to achieve something. The aforementioned definitions of motivations lead to the assumption or conclusion that motivation begins with individual needs. Needs are deficiencies that govern behavior to satisfy them. Mathematically needs can be viewed as a function while all other things that satisfy needs are the argument of the function. For example if needs is physiological function, then food, water, and water some of the arguments. If the need is a social function, then love and being loved are some of the arguments. Needs and motivation are functionally dependent on each other. Stronger the needs higher the motivation, and weaker the needs lower the motivation. Thus, depending on the strength of need motivation may tend to zero. Hierarchy of Needs: Concept Set forth, above discussion serves the foundation of the content theories of motivation. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a content theory of motivation (“Content theories of Motivation”, 2007). It is a classical characterization of human motivation. It is an object oriented theory and consists of two parts (Rilley, 2012); (1) The classification of human needs into classes, (2) and interrelation among these classes. The classes of needs are (“Spirituality and Western Psycology”): 1. Physiological needs 2. Safety needs 3. Social needs 4. Esteem needs 5. Self-actualization needs. Thus, we can conclude that Maslow’s theory Hierarchy of Needs is an object-oriented theory in psychology that encapsulates five different classes. Inheritance characterizes these classes, and their relations depend on the order of hierarchy. This statement implies that human motivation moves from the lower needs to the higher needs; thus hierarchy of needs serves as the foundation for motivation. Also, it can be said that hierarchy of needs is a framework for motivation. This study analyzes Maslow’s theory of Hierarchy of needs thru the prism of human motivation. According to Maslow, “ The needs that are usually taken as the starting point for motivation theory are the so called physiological drives” (Maslow, 2000, p.3). Hierarchy of Needs: D- Group Needs Thus, the physiological needs are the lowest level in the hierarchy of needs. The lowest level of needs indicates that they have priority over all other needs. These needs are substances that the human body requires, which is determined and controlled by the receptors and effectors of the human body. According to Maslow, “man lives by bread alone” when there is no bread (Maslow, 2000). Physiological needs, Maslow determined, based on the homeostasis, and appetite concepts. Homeostasis characterizes (Boeree) body’s automatic efforts to maintain a constant, normal level of blood stream. Appetite characterizes body’s relationship to a specific food. If the body lacks some chemical, the individual will tend to develop a specific appetite for that food element. Maslow, at the same time states (Maslow, 2000) that all physiological needs cannot be homeostatic. For example, tastes, smells, tickling, stroking though fall under the category of physiological needs, are not homeostasis. Needs for oxygen, water, salt, sugar, protein, mineral and vitamins fall under the category of physiological needs, which are homeostasis. Homeostasis is the principle by which a furnace thermostat operates; when it is too cold, it switches the heat on, and switches off, when it is too hot. When we feed the organism with enough food, the hunger stops, and when there is a lack of food in organism hunger starts. The next higher level in the hierarchy is the safety and security needs. Maslow states (Maslow, 2000, p.5), “If the physiological needs are relatively well gratified, there then emerges a new set of needs, which may categorize as the safety needs”. In his work, A Theory of Human Motivation, Maslow explained these phenomena thru observation on infants and children. Infants react in a different way if they disturbed by a loud noise, flashing light, or other unwanted sensory stimulations, by rough handling, general loss of support of mother’s arm or by inadequate support. Safety needs for adults has remarkably broad range, especially in the modern world. It includes, job, natural calamities, pension, insurances, etc. From the motivation viewpoint, once physiological needs are satisfied, they lose their motivational potential. Safety needs then replace those inherent and influence human behavior. As long as those needs are unsatisfied, it operates as a force to achieve the goal of motivation. The next higher level on the hierarchy is the esteem needs. Human in the society has a need for self-respect, self-esteem, and esteem for others. Maslow classifies esteem needs into two sub sets (Maslow, 2000); the first set includes desire for strength, achievement, confidence, independence; and the second set includes reputation, recognition, attention, and appreciation. Satisfactions of these needs are paramount, since, according to Adler, they become the roots of psychological problems. The preceding four levels of Needs, Maslow defines; as Deficit or D- needs (Boeree). If a person does not have enough of some needs, he / she feels about it. However, these needs once are satisfied to the extent of a person’s desire they cease to be motivating. Therefore, there is no impetus for motivation. The D- group needs can be represented thru functional analysis; each “level” being the name of the function while “needs” being the variables (Macaque). 1. ? (Physiological needs) = {Hunger, Thirst, Shelter, Sex} 2. ? (Safety needs) = {Security, Protection from harm} 3. ? (Social needs) = {Affection, Belonging, Acceptance, Friendship} 4. ? (Esteem needs) = {Self respect, Autonomy, Achievement, Status, Recognition} Each of the above mentioned variable has to have a certain value to satisfy a person’s need. From the above equations, it is clear that values of these variables are not finite, depends on uniqueness of a person, culture, and nationality. D – Group Needs: Real world Example Maslow observes that the deficiency needs are essentially survival needs, and it is built in us genetically (Maslow, 2000). The evolutionary development of a child after the birth; takes place along the path of the hierarchy of needs. At the lowest level of hierarchy, a child’s needs are; food, water, air, shelter, activity, and rest. At the second level, a child understands needs for physical security. At the third level, a child’s needs are affection, care, attention, and emotional support. At the fourth level, child needs are being valued, appreciated, and accepted. Once previous levels needs are fulfilled, a child attempts to become what he / she is capable of becoming. A child crosses these levels within the time of his / her childhood. In adult life moving thru the stages of hierarchy of needs could be both forward and backward, since needs are based on surrounding circumstances. With the regress of surrounding circumstances needs move from higher level to lower level (backward movement). When a brilliant career falls flat, security needs become urgent. When a family falls apart, belonging needs become indispensable. Movement along the path of hierarchy needs can be defined not only for an individual, but also for a society. A society’s needs changes according to circumstances. When a political and economic conditions of the society deteriorate, people clamor for a strong leader to take over and get things right. When food supply stops coming to the shops people’s needs become more basic. The above analysis shows that moving along the hierarchy of needs is not static, rather dynamic. According to Maslow, “Man does not live by bread alone”; a satisfied need does not act as a motivator as one need is satisfied, another needs replaces it – the process is dynamic (Akrani, 2010). Hierarchy of Needs: B – Group Needs The last stage of hierarchy of needs is self-actualization. Maslow used Kurt Goldstein’s explanation for the last level hierarchy of needs; it refers to the desire for self-fulfillment. In the above section, of this article desire was explained as appetite. The last stage of needs in the hierarchy model may be defined as an appetite for becoming what one is capable of becoming. Why desire is so critical? Maslow defines desire, as growth motivation for being needs or B – needs. Once D – group needs are satisfied, human behavior shows restlessness, unless the person is doing what he / she can do. D – needs explains a sequence of variables that need to be satisfied so a human can survive on this earth. Variables of D- needs do not significantly differ from one individual to another. However, use of variables of B- needs depend tremendously from person to person. In one individual, it may be the desire to become a classic mother, in other an artist, in another an athlete, and so on. Desires for self-actualization differs from person to person, but needs that become the force of this stage rests upon prior satisfaction of D – level needs. Maslow defines the group of people who satisfy their D-needs as “substantially satisfied” people. He also stresses that only from these people society can expect fullest creativeness. Thus, according to Maslow, the pre-requisite for self-actualization is being a “substantially satisfied” person. Maslow formulated certain parameters that portray characters of individuals who can meet the self-actualization needs. These parameters were derived based on biographical study of highly established recognized and unknown personalities. It was explained earlier that D- needs does not significantly differ from a person-to-person while B-needs does. Nevertheless, Masolw tried to understand the group of people who posses the desire (appetite) to become a self-actualized individual. His goal was to sort these personalities. Maslow found three common denominators (Maslow, 2000) among these people; reality-centered, problem-centered, different perception of means and ends. By reality-centered, he meant people who could identify what is true and genuine, and what is false and fraudulent. Problem-centered people treated life difficulties as problems demanding solutions while they should not be considered as personal troubles. People with a different perception of means and ends find the means – the journey itself – is more valuable than the ends, and end could be in the journey. Maslow also noted some other characteristics of these people; they enjoy solitude and deeper personal relationship with few close friends and family members, they require considerable independences from physical and social needs, they have unchastely sense of humor, they have a sense of humility and respect towards others, and they have strong ethics, which is though spiritual, but seldom conventionally religious in nature. Hierarchy of Needs: From Theory to Practice Abraham Maslow’s main contribution in psychology is the development of hierarchy of needs, which has a broad level of influence in education, business management, and in human psychology (Campbel). His theory reflects a high level of practicality, easily recognizable by people from different layers of society. He developed the hierarchy of needs being a humanistic psychologist (“Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs”). In the early 1960s, when Maslow developed his theory, psychology was dominated by two views of human behavior; psychoanalytic and the behaviorist. The psychoanalytic concept came from case studies of neurotic people, and it emphasized unconscious conflicts and drives on human behavior. The behaviorist emphasized the role of research and derived many of its principles form study of animal behavior. Maslow pointed out that psychoanalysts developed a theory or hypothesis without considering healthy human beings while the behaviorists were too mechanistic in their perception. These observations led Maslow conclude that human character should be studied thru conscious motivations and background of healthy individuals. This is the basic principle of humanistic psychology. Humanists do not believe that behavioral stimuli and reinforcement (behaviorism) or instinctual impulses (psychoanalysis) pushes or pulls human being from what one is doing. Humanist psychologists focus on human potentials. They believe on human strive of achievement and success. Desire of personal achievement and success takes human from one level to another level in the hierarchy of needs and finally to self-actualization. A self-actualizing person is fully functioning and strong personality. Self-actualization must be the ultimate goal of every human being. Maslow presented his theory of hierarchy of needs in the form of a pyramid, where self-actualization is the vertex. He believes that the only reason a person would not be able to reach the vertex because of hindrance placed by the society in their way. According to his opinion, education is one of the hindrances. His recommendation (Brickman, 2008) to the education system is change from person-stunting tactics to person-growing tactics. It is beyond anyone’s doubt that system of education is a vital mechanism that society uses to develop a whole generation. Society expects that this tool produce more and more self-actualized individuals. The hierarchy of needs certainly explains component of behavior, including school behavior. The student should experience the school is a place for the need to know and understand. This “need” (know and understand) probably characterizes the “esteem needs” of Maslow’s hierarchy model. The most salient message he conveys is one cannot satisfy (or accomplish) the needs of a specific level if he / she is not satisfied with the fulfillment of needs of the previous level. If we put “need to know and understand” at the esteem level, then a student has to be satisfied with belonging needs, safety needs, physiological needs in the school. In today’s society, proper food and school safety play a vital role. Lack of proper nutrition and physical hygiene is hindrance to learning. When the safety needs are challenged, it interferes learning. Belonging needs is also essential for children, who must feel that they are welcome to the school. Teacher should stay away from dominating the classrooms, instead teaching student fellowship needs as a vital mechanism to achieve self esteem. Maslow’s theory is widely used as a management tool in different companies. TESCO uses this model (“Motivational Theory in practice at Tesco”) as a motivation tool for employees. For the satisfaction of lowest level basic needs, the company provides a work place, monthly pay, food at restaurant, and lockers for belongings. For security needs, company provides formal contract, pension, sickness scheme, and option to join a union to give people a sense of belonging, which ensures health and safety at workplace. For social needs, company promotes team and group working at various levels. The company “ Steering Wheel” assesses individual and group work and enables store staff to work as a team. The company emphasizes self-respect and respect for others and praises for hard work, its self-assessment, 360-degree feedback and appraisal system help to recognize individuals’ contribution and celebrate achievement. Tesco offers Personal Development Plans, recognition of skills and talents, opportunity promotion and career progression program. Career discussion feed into Tesco Talent Planning meetings. The options fast-track management program provides a route for capable staff to reach higher levels. Maslow’s theory can also be used in personal life (“Abraham-maslow-theory”). One can group first two levels of hierarchy needs in one need, and determine what does he / she has to have before any other priority can be placed. The two needs can have a name; Having needs. Combining together Belonging and Self Esteem one determines what he / she needs to do before can be the kind of person he / she can be. These two needs can have a name; Do needs. Only after satisfaction of “Having needs” and “Do needs” , one can meet Self Actualization unencumbered by material and social needs. Hierarchy of Needs: Criticism The above discussion showing implementation of Maslow’s theory in school, business and personal life exhibit that the hierarchy of needs model, in fact, constitute a philosophy of quality of life. Happiness and true being of one’s life, according to this theory, closely related to the satisfaction of earlier needs. The theory, however, did not stress that one must know himself / herself to apply the theory in life. Maslow avoided this crucial issue and provided a comprehensive roadmap of personal development, thru application of series of needs, where next need is revealed once previous one is realized. In order to fulfill one by one all of the needs one needs to be more spontaneous, independent, active, and responsible. We can dissect the hierarchy of needs pyramid into three different parts; bottom part, middle part and the top part. The bottom part consists of; The physiological needs, like food, cloth and sleep The need for peace of mind, like a safe residence The need for love as, for instance, to belong to someone The need for respect or to be acknowledged The middle part consists of The need for knowledge and understanding – to know ourselves and to understand ourselves The need for creativity and aesthetics – to use our knowledge and talent to create The top part consists of; The need for self-actualization – to realize our personal meaning of life The need for transcendence – To become an integrated and valuable part of the world If we accept Maslow’s theory, we should then admit that a truly happy person would have these eight needs fulfilled. At the same time, Maslow acknowledged that self-actualization and transcendence are rarely achieved. Thus, the top part of the model becomes utopian. Most people of our time hardly cross the level 3 or level 4 in hierarchy. At the same time, there are people who could not satisfy needs of level 3, but achieved self-actualization. One striking example is Van Gogh, who failed to satisfy bottom and middle parts of the pyramid. Another example is Rembrandt, who hardly could satisfy his physiological needs. Hierarchy of Needs: Criticism explained What is the purpose of this model, is it a way to happiness (Ventegodt, et. al., 2003)? Irrespective of previous examples it should be noted that when we know our needs and our responsibility how to satisfy we can be transformed from a bitter and problematic human beings to a happy, easy going people with stable character, being a friend and ideal for our children. The concept behind Maslow’s model teaches us to take responsibility to satisfy needs to achieve a better life. Maslow provided us with a roadmap to quality of life. The quality of life incorporates parameters like love and care, respect, knowledge, creativity, and understanding the life mission. The vertex of hierarchy of needs pyramid is self-actualization. The significant limitation concerns about his methodology in determining the vertex of the pyramid. Maslow using qualitative method and data of biographical analysis of 21 individuals, about whom he thought achieved self-actualization, developed characteristics of people who could achieve the pyramid vertex. This approach, from scientific perspectives is extremely subjective, and the result is based entirely on opinion of researcher. There is no empirical test of Maslow’s concept of self-actualization that establishes a casual relationship. Maslow’s theory also faces criticism for the assumption that the lower needs must be satisfied before a person can move to satisfy the higher level needs. The following limitations (Akrani, 2010) are observed in Maslow’s model of hierarchy of needs: 1. The theory does not consider the cause and effect relation of needs and behavior. 2. The theory is heavily simplified and is based on human needs only 3. Needs of all human being are not the same. 4. Needs changes according to the progress of the society. 5. Needs varies according to culture and society Maslow’s theory is based on humanistic approach, an alternative to the scientific approach (McLeod, 2008). Alternative to empiricism are rational research, argument and belief. The humanistic approach is based on subjective conscious experience and argues that objective reality is less valuable than an individual’s perception and understanding of the world. This was Maslow’s basic understanding, and that is why his theory is not based on laboratory investigations of human and animal behavior. Humanistic psychologist advocates that a person’s subjective evaluation of the world is crucial, which influences as a dominant factor on a person’s behavior. Only by seeing the world from the individual’s point of view we can truly understand why they act the way they do. This is what the humanistic approach aims to do. Humanistic psychologists look at the human behaviors, not thru the eyes of researchers, but thru the eyes of the person doing the behavior (Maslow, 2000). This approach is essential for a researcher in determining an individual’s behavior that is connected to his / her inner feelings. The humanistic approach in psychology favors freewill to reach a unique and in depth understanding instead of determinism, and this is why it deliberately steps away from a scientific viewpoint. The humanistic approach does not have an orderly set of theories (although it does have some core assumptions) and is not interested in forecasting and controlling people’s behavior - the individuals themselves are the only ones who can and should do that. Humanistic psychologists rejected (McLeod, 2008) to apply stringent scientific method to psychology because they saw it as dehumanizing and could not capture the richness of conscious experience. Maslow, in his work “ A theory of Human Motivation” stated that fixed order of hierarchy model is not nearly as rigid as may have been implied to us. Maslow has explained some exceptions in his theory (Maslow, 2000); 1. There are people in whom; self-esteem seems to be more important than love. 2. There are creative people in whom the drive to creativeness seems to be more important than any other needs. 3. There are people who for a long time has experienced life at a very low level, for them meaning of life is only to get enough food. 4. People reevaluate hierarchy of needs. For example who has given up his job against loosing self respect, and who then has starved for six months would be willing to take the job back even at the price of loosing self respect. 5. The hierarchy of needs claims that a person wants more basic of two needs when deprived in both. However, this is not a rigid rule, since behavior has determinants other than needs and desires, which may influence in fulfilling prepotency of needs. Maslow clarifies that one should not think that only one hundred percent fulfillment of basic needs of one level would arouse needs of the next level. We should consider the concept of the degree of relative satisfaction. For example, there are two needs (Maslow, 2000); A and B. For instance, if proponent need A is satisfied only 10 percent, then B may still not be visible, but if A is satisfied 25 per cent, then need B emerges 5 percent, as need A becomes satisfied 75 percent B emerges to higher percent. This is how; Maslow explains relative satisfaction of needs. Maslow also explains that needs are neither conscious nor unconscious, cultural specificity and generality influence basic needs and its priority, goals are the centering principle in motivation theory, human motivation must be studied thru human behavior, and not animal behavior (Maslow, 2000). Conclusion Irrespective of individual criticism the theory holds many merits. In business management, it helps mangers to understand the behavior of their employees determine motivation for employees to get the best result out of an employee. In the field of education, it opens many opportunities for creating distinguished personalities. In biomedicine (Simons, et. al., 1987), it helps support a patient’s body and mind, by supporting the wish of the patient to assume responsibility for his / her existence and needs. Abraham Maslow is considered to be the father of humanistic psychology. The basic ideas behind the humanistic psychology are straightforward, which holds the following belief (Maslow, 2000): 1. The present is the most important of a person; therefore it is not necessary to look at the past to solve the future. 2. Psychologically healthy people must take their own responsibility whether the actions are positive or negative 3. The human posses an inherent worth. 4. The goal of the life is to achieve personal growth and understanding. Self-improvement and self-knowledge can make a person truly happy. Abraham Maslow’s humanistic psychology teaches us to improve our consciousness and accept responsibility by giving two questions to ourselves (Ventegodt, 2003); “What do I need”, and “How will I get it?” Bibliography Akrani, J. (2010). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs- Theory of Human Motivation. Retrieved from http://kalyan-city.blogspot.com/2010/06/maslow-hierarchy-of-needs-theory-of.html Abraham Maslow. (n.d.). GoodTherapy.Org. Retrieved from http://kalyan-city.blogspot.com/2010/06/maslow-hierarchy-of-needs-theory-of.htmlhttp://www.goodtherapy.org/famous-psychologists/abraham-maslow.html Abraham-maslow-theory. (n.d.). mftrou.com. Retrieved from http://www.mftrou.com/support-files/abraham-maslow-theory.pdf Boeree, G.C. (n.d.). ABRAHAM MASLOW. ship.edu. Retrieved from http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/maslow.html Brickman Chuck. (2008). Maslow’s Theory of Hierarchical Needs – Alive and Well in the Classrom. Teachers.Net Gazette. Retrieved from http://teachers.net/gazette/FEB08/archive/ Campbel, D.E. (n.d.). The Work of Abraham Maslow. education.com. Retrieved from http://www.education.com/reference/article/work-Abraham-Maslow/ Content theories of Motivation. (2007). Motivation-khailaza82. Retrieved from http://motivation-khailiza82.blogspot.com/2007/08/content-theories-of-motivation.html Higgins, J. M. ((1994). The management challenge (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan Kreitner, R. (2008). Management. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.ua/books/about/Management.html?id=kQn081qAYZ0C&redir_esc=y Linder, J. (n.d.). Understanding Employee Motivation. Journal of Extension. Retrieved from http://www.joe.org/joe/1998june/rb3.php Macaque, J.N. (n.d.). Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/mac4/maslows-theory#btnPrevious Maslow, A.H. (2000). A Theory of Human Motivation. Classics in the History of Psychology. Retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. (n.d.). eNotes.com. Retrieved from http://www.enotes.com/maslows-hierarchy-needs-reference/maslows-hierarchy-needs McLeod, S. (2008). Psychology as Science. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/science-psychology.html Motivational Theory in practice at Tesco. (.n.d.). The times 100. Retrieved from http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/tesco/motivational-theory-in-practice-at-tesco/maslow-and-herzberg.html#axzz2CUh9725e Munger, M. (2003). The history of Psychology: Fundamental Questions. New York: Oxford University Press. Prabhuji. (n.d.). Desire. The Blog od H.H. Avandhuta Sri Ramakrishnananda Babaji Maharaj. Retrieved from http://www.swamiramakrishnananda.com/yoga/tantra-yoga/what-is-desire/#d1 Rilley, J. (2012). Motivation Theory – Maslow. tutor2u. Retrieved from http://www.tutor2u.net/business/people/motivation_theory_maslow.asp Simons, JA, Irwin, DB, and Drinnien BA. (1987). Psychology – The search for understanding. Retrieved from http://www.google.com.ua/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=8&ved=0CGkQFjAH&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.utm.edu%2Fstaff%2Fmikem%2Fdocuments%2FMaslowetal.doc&ei=p-WtUPXCH5KP0QHM1YGoBQ&usg=AFQjCNEPi5d-dD5DM732Ff8JXzcChFdZ8A Spirituality and Western Psycology. (n.d.). ihug.co.nz. Retrieved from http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~greg.c/psych.html Thomas Hobbes. (2009). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hobbes/ Ventegodt, S., Merrick, J., and Anderson, NJ. (2003). Quality of Life III. Maslow Revisited. TheScientificWorldJournal, 3, 1050-1057. Read More