Social, emotional and behavioural difficulties 2011-2012 - Essay Example

? Social, Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties By 1009008h Words account 4,320 Behaviourism with emotional and behavioural difficulties Introduction This critical review is about ‘Behaviourism’ and its role in learning while helping students having behavioural and emotional complications. In the first section Behaviourism is defined and its background discussed in detail. Then the role of Behaviourism in teaching and the point of view of different groups regarding its importance in applying for removing the SEBD issues in classrooms. At the very end in conclusion, a brief overview has been given for its improvisation in Saudi Arabian schools to improve the teaching methods and techniques and entails a new policy for SEBD students. More importantly the research question has been given at the end aroused from this review. Background John B. Watson, initially brought in ‘behaviourism’ into examination in the year 1912, which minted the word ‘behaviourism’. In 1938, this study was further preceded by B. F. Skinner who proposed that ‘learning’ can be determined as a discernible change. Afterwards, Ralph Tyler then made use viewpoints from behaviourism, in 1949, to direct lesson design. Behaviourism, merely deals with altering the behaviour by honouring demanded actions and penalizing or neglecting unwanted activities. Behaviour theorists determined ‘learning’ as nothing beyond the attainment of a novel behaviour. ‘Behaviour Modification’, a teaching framework was formulated through the previously identified research works and findings (Alberto and Troutman, 1995). The fundamentals of the behaviourist theory go back to the philosopher Aristotle (Black, 1995). This theory illustrates that the learning of behaviors could be assessed and noticed. It identifies the brain as a "black box" as the reaction to any stimulant can be detected quantitatively, entirely neglecting the likelihood of intellections happening in the brain. Skinner, Pavlov, Thorndike and Watson are the most famous behaviourists who played significant role in developing this theory. B.F Skinner was a psychologist who put forward this theory of Behaviourism. He believed that behaviour is controlled by cause and effect and it has got nothing to do with mind or reasoning. Behaviourism is considered as conditioning or training introduced by Pavlov, a Russian psychologist. The classical conditioning was formulated by Ivan Pavlov, a physiologist of Russian origin. It may be referred as, ‘A sort of learning, established by linkage of a classified stimulant unable to commonly evoke peculiar reactions on some other stimulant having the ability to evoke a desired reaction (Feldman, Papalia and Olds, 2007). The above mentioned description inculcates that the fundamental elements in this type of conditioning is the term linkage, depicting that the simultaneous occurrence of two distinct stimulants frequently will lead to the development of linkage in them.. For example if a student faces continuously a problem in his/her English language class in the shape of unfriendly teacher, unmanageable questions, and a great deal of home assignments may create an undesired perception in his/her brain about the instructor (Murdick and Petch-Hogan, 1996; Schloss and Smith, 1994). Classical conditioning was discovered by Pavlov by accident. Originally, he wanted to study the role of salivation in digestion. He measured that when given meat, how much saliva dogs produce. After a few days in the experiment, Pavlov noticed that the dogs in his laboratory started salivating when the lab attendant entered the room with the meat dish, before meat was placed in their mouth. This aroused Pavlov’s curiosity and he pursued the issue with more experiments. For example, he sounded a bell just before presenting his dogs with food. Before obtaining food, various times, following the sound of the ringing bell, the dogs were observed to start salivating as shortly as the bell started to ring. In other word, in reaction to a novel stimulant (the bell), the mind of dogs had been manipulated to initiate salivating that in normal condition may not initiate salivation. The dogs had learned to associate the bell with food. There are two types of stimulus and two types of responses in classical conditioning. They are referred as conditional stimulant, unconditional stimulant, conditional response and unconditional response. Classical conditioning is knitted simply through neutral stimulus as the bell in schools automatically means for students to go to class. Operate Conditioning Operate conditioning envisages depicting a particular behaviour through punishment or reward. Thorndike was the pioneer in studying this kind of learning. In both cases i.e. classical and operate conditioning no cognitive thought process of the higher brain involved, though it’s all about behaviour or behaviourism. In operate conditioning two types of reinforcement and two types of punishment are used i.e. positive and negative. Reinforcement is an effective process if it is given as soon as a student performs, though the behaviour of learning decreases quickly if it stops. To avoid such a drawback a set of four schedule reinforcements developed to be used at certain times. Punishment presents the fastest way to changing behaviour, but it can be dangerous to an individual as will (Santrock, 2008; Sorenson, 1990). Punishment does not convey any information about alternative but it is more like suppressing a student. Punishment can be abusive as it might arouse the anger of the student to become abusive to the teacher or become aggressive. Reactions that bring irritating or unsuitable outcomes will be inhibited that nevertheless may rematerialize if fortification eventualities transform. Sanctioning late pupils by drawing back privileges could refrain from being late (Good and Brophy, 1990). Social Learning Theory Behaviourism may be referred as being upgraded by this theory as both of them regard “experience” as an essential learning instrument. The conceptions of strengthening and penalization are also included in the description of conduct. Moreover, feedback is also considered to be essential in advancing learning mechanism (Kauchak and Eggen, 2007). Majority of the rules of this theory were developed in 1989 by Bandura. It conceives that pupils study by viewing or discovering and impersonating other individuals. This process is called modelling or observational learning. According to Hinrichs, (2004) “Observational learning is so common and so powerful” Behaviourism in the Classroom This section describes how teachers can apply the principles of behaviourism in the classroom. It is divided into three subsections according to the perspectives discussed earlier that are classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning theory. Applying Classical Conditioning in the Classroom The key element in classical conditioning is association. Therefore, instructors are advocated to connect assortment of positivistic as well as gratifying events along with instructing and schoolroom actions. For instance, an instructor may make use of appealing instructing aids, adorning the schoolrooms, promoting pupils to collaborate in little groupings for unmanageable education responsibilities, recognition of pupils and welcoming them upon entering the classroom, informing them distinctly and particularly the formatting of tests, examinations and quizzes, make them comprehend the classroom rules and contributing them ample time for the preparation and culmination of their educational tasks. Applying ‘Operant Conditioning’ within Classroom The outcomes linked with a specific conduct by utilizing operant conditioning may lead to the alterations in the possibility of occurrence of that behaviour. Strengthening and penalization are regarded as the principal conceptions prescribed by this specified conditioning (Larrivee, 1992). Few instances for the application of this type of conditioning within classrooms are mentioned as follows. • Recognize as well as reinforce positive conducts along with literal job accomplishments. • Use diverse sort of support, for example, instructor blessing (praising, grinning, attention, or pats on the shoulder), privileges (increased break time), and concrete reinforcement (candies, cookies, and stationeries). • Reward good conducts and penalize bad ones systematically. • Apply agenda of strengtheners like astonishing rewards to promote persistence. • Employ positive penalty as the final alternative. Employ negative penalty like detention class rather. • Penalize students’ conduct without affecting their individual qualities. • Let the undesirable behaviour known to the pupils. It may also include the strategies like shaping, chaining, discrimination and fading. Shaping involves specifying the desired conduct needs accurately so that the pupils may comprehend their own conduct and attempt to accomplish the desired one. Chaining, involves step-wise development of the pupils by rewarding each step of accomplishment and further progression to a more complex step. The reward implementation at each step requires being immediate and adequate. Discrimination entails that students may become able to comprehend the desired conduct in context to the circumstances while fading involves the regular practice to ensure the development of a habit that do not requires the presence of a discriminating stimulant. Applying the Social Learning Theory in the Classroom The social learning theory focuses on how people learn by observing and imitating others. To motivate learning using this approach, a teacher may: • Use high-achieving and successful peers as models. • Model positive behaviours himself. • Use vicarious reinforcement, that is, make sure students see that positive behaviours will lead to positive consequences. • Demonstrate and teach good behaviours. The Predicament of Saudi Arabian Student-An Overall View In Saudi Arabia the motivation is absent from those students who are generally taught English language in the classroom. The mass failure of students in English portrays their disinterest in the subject. They consider the study of English as laborious and boring. The motivation devices used by Saudi teachers kill the purpose of learning (Madsen and Madsen, 1983). For example most of the teachers teach from an examination point of view or motivate their students to learn so that they can pass the exam. In this connection learning becomes only a task for the student to pass his test or exam and the spirit of real achievement is lost. As a result learning is forced through punishment and reward (Braaten et al., 1988). We can make the learning of English through positive motivation alone or either providing an atmosphere to invoke the internal or intrinsic muse of the learners. But unfortunately in our schools and colleges motivation has never been recognized as a significant effective tool through which we can affect the proficiency of English language. The responsibility of students’ predicament lies not only upon these de-motivating figures but also on the attitude of teachers. In short the students are repeatedly asked to learn instead of helping them to learn. Various teaching methods are used by teachers i.e. Direct, Communicative, Audio-Visual, etc. to teach English but they neglected extrinsic motivation, which helps learners to learn things easily and quickly (Ayers and Meyer, 1992). As a result of this teaching deficiency, students are facing disruptive behaviour (Meyer and Henry, 1993; Morris and Maisto, 2001). On the contrary the absence of bifurcating students in the beginning having difficulty emotionally and behaviourally gave rise to another question of putting them (SEBD) in the mainstream schools. Before going to discuss in detail about the effective strategies for reducing the disruptive behaviour, we should first know in detail about the terms SEBD or EBD. Determining EBD or SEBD ‘EBD’, refers to an assortment of difficulties and it can be explained in the following terms. These troubles are to be taken as from inability to societal adjustment to unnatural emotional strains (U.S. Department of Education, 1996). These learning and emotional difficulties are relentless and institute learning complications. These difficulties may occur in a variety as well as demonstrate themselves in several dissimilar severities and forms. Through passive, self-injurious, withdrawn and aggressive tendencies, these difficulties may turn evident (DfEE 1994: 7). Apparently, EBD lacks any clarified view that which group of children or which behaviour it resides in. On the other side, it is not straightforwardly defined that if within the school, behavioural problems suggest some fundamental mental condition troubles that necessitate either psychiatric or any other medical treatment. Ordinarily, EBD and more in depth seated mental health issues involving specifically psychiatric treatment are distinctively handled (Atkinson and Hornby, 2002). According to DfES (2001), nevertheless, in fresh assistance, it has been identified by the Government that there exist certain overlap among children group with EBD and children group having other issues related to mental well being. ‘The Code of Practice’ designed to evaluate as well as acknowledgement of necessities involving education of special children proposes that EBD may possibly happen to be noticeable in the ways mentioned and listed below (DfEE, 1994): Behaviour may be referred to be inappropriate with the age or socially undesirable or unusual Interfering behaviour with the education of peers or the student such as continued exclaiming in class, denial to process, unrelenting aggravation of peers Emotional turbulence signs such as exclusion from social scenarios or strange weepiness Troubles in maintaining and forming positive natured associations such as segregation from equals or being aggressive to other grownups and peers. EBD refers to any aroused and behavioural trouble qualified by the below mentioned characteristics: (i) Inability to maintain or construct acceptable interpersonal association with instructors and peers. (ii) Inability to study content inadequately described by sensory, intellectual or health factors. (iii) Chronic or uniform incompatible kind of feelings or behaviour under ordinary circumstances. (iv) Demonstrated insidious depression or sadness mood. (v) Demonstrated inclination to initiate physical indications, inordinate frightening or pains linked with school or personal issues. Which of the Strategies Are Effective? After defining the term in detail we need to check about the strategy which is most valid for reducing these disruptive behaviour problems and it will form bases for further research and scope of a certain question to be raised in Saudi Arabian Schools about SEBD issues. The identical or dissimilar strategies for Discipline? Ordinarily, instructors may adopt identical techniques and disciplinary patterns to control the tumultuous behaviour of pupils with disabilities that are employed by them to handle those lacking such disabilities. The unwanted behaviour that both groups demonstrated is usually same in trait. Although, opinions of educators in excerption of a specific behavioural treatment may exhibit difference in approach, teachers are recommended to make sure that the strategies chosen must have development appropriateness while choosing a particular behavioural intervention as well as the consideration of a pupil’s due process rights and disability (Frith and Armstrong, 1986). Following are ten questions designed to aid teachers in diagnostic analysis of a situation that helps in the progression of disruptive behaviour in pupils with disabilities thus providing guidelines in the selection behaviour reducing strategies. Whether the inappropriate behaviour exhibited may be the outcome of an inappropriately devised curriculum or inadequate teaching strategies? Students’ misbehaviour can add up to the arousal of grudges as using inappropriate curriculum and teaching strategies by the teacher nevertheless all misbehaviour may not be imputable to the given factors. Disruptive or inappropriate behaviour or misbehaviour may happen as an outcome of the inability of the instructor to address the requirements of a diverse class of pupils. The factors that should be considered while designing teaching strategy include composition of a group of students, the size of that group, constrained time for planning, linguistic and cultural hurdles and the inability to access required materials, equipments and resources (Katsiyannis, 1995). A teacher is strictly advised to rethink over the content and the curriculum components. If the misbehaviour is happening due to inappropriate curriculum or teaching strategies, then the teacher has to reconsider the pupil’s futurist gain, along with the formats employed by him/her in the delivery of instructions. The student misbehaviour or grudges can be reduced up to a great level if the teacher is able to locate the instructional requirements of pupils while remaining within the classroom setting, time to time after reviewing the material if the teacher adapt certain things in curriculum using a diagnostic prescriptive approach, and modernize his/her instructional delivery, student misbehaviour can greatly be reduced. Whether the misconduct be an outcome of the inability of a pupil to comprehend the concepts delivered? It can be considered as the most important point in analysing the demands of the student to overcome the difficulties in learning and reduce the problem of disruption (Cuenin and Harris, 1986). Sometimes it is easy to arouse the anger of the students if the teacher’s style of delivering subject mismatches the student’s style of learning. Mischievous behavioural incidents may also be an outcome of a pupil’s refusal to study concepts due to his/her inability to view the association among the techniques and skills that are being taught and the way these delivered skills may exceed to the greater practical environment settings. In such circumstances, teachers should adopt tactics and strategies that exhibit pupils the way each skills component may be delivered in the community as well as the classroom. If for instance the misconduct is traced to be the consequence of student’s inability to develop the pre-requisite abilities, skill to attain concepts, a simplistic procedure may be adopted like task analysis. By employing this technique, teacher will be able to pinpoint particular working levels of pupils on aimed skills and render successive instructional approach that may assist the movement of disables students towards the supremacy of a directed objective at a speed suitable for the pupil (Dardig and Moyer, 1978). Whether the misconduct observed may be the outcome of a student’s lack of ability? There is an obvious drawback which can’t be gap up with techniques of forwarding mainstream classes;’ techniques i.e. emotional and behavioural disorders. In the meantime, former behaviours might be an outcome of intended student actions to induce classroom commotion (Feldman, 2005).To ascertain the possible reason of the misconduct of the student, it needs cautious analysis of the behaviour. Attempt to elucidate the behavioural forms leading to the development of concerns. Determine the incorrectness in the reported behaviour. Determine the action plan to tackle the reported behaviour by explaining the desired behaviour. Carryout the decided action plan to address variables, circumstances or conditions leading to the expression of reports undesirable behaviour (Charles, 1996). The reported undesirable behaviour should be critically analyzed and a professional exploration of its causes should be done. Wattenberg and Redl as cited in Charles, (1996) proposed that a “diagnostic thinking” procedure could be adopted by educators upon facing the manifestation of student misconduct. It entails constituting an initial suspicion, assembling facts, researching concealed factors, carrying out appropriate actions, and staying flexible. As implementing such a holistic program will be difficult, a clear understanding of common features such as behavioural, emotional/ social, academic, physical and learning of disabled pupils along with the linked aetiologies may ease the process (Carpenter and McKee-Higgins, 1996). Whether other factors may have caused the misconduct? Various facets like class room’s physical arrangement, frustration or boredom, intermediary periods, unawareness of the activities taking place in the whole classroom can add to the misconduct or disruptive behaviour of the student while the physical setting and the atmosphere of the classroom can also promote suitable behaviour (Daniels). The teacher is needed to be aware of the fact that misbehaviour mostly stems from specific kinds of instructing behaviour, instructors need to turn more mindful of the forms of behaviour emitted and the association between the instructing behaviour and the consequential pupils behaviour. Keep an eye on your interaction with your students in the classroom and try to follow the basic points as The evolution of applicable, suitable and curriculums. The way each student is recognized by the teacher along with the comprehension of their individuality with his/ her uniqueness on the basis of needs and features. Instructor’s personal behaviour and features like the ones reported by Kounin (1970) like overlapping, witnessing that decline the mischievous behaviour, improves time of instructions and preserve focus of the group along with the management of pupils’ movement. Whether certain factors leading to the inappropriate behaviour be controlled? It is mentioned earlier that being a one may control various variables to get rid of unwanted behaviour i.e. The curriculum can be changed or modified; adaptations can be done in instructional plan to focus all intelligence levels as well as communication style, attitudes and expectations from disabled students can be. An analysis of the frequency of quantity of positive feedback provided to students should be done. If the frequency is determined to be low or limited emphasizing on student’s positive behaviour may be a contributing factor to the reported behaviour issues (Yell, 1990). Bothe nonverbal; and verbal feedback is essential in the learning process, however, it is often overlooked, ignored or haphazardly orated. How it can be determined that the misconduct has a foundation within the classroom? Although being a difficult question but it keeps an eye on you by evaluating your teaching method and instructional practices can assert easily that weather the flaw is there with the teaching or is it a presence of disability in the classroom. Teachers may find the ecological inventory of a classroom (Fuchs et al., 1994) useful in deciding the cause-effect associations of pupil misdeed. It may help in the assessment of learning environments prominent features of the classroom or the whole school. It helps in analysing the student’s data, behaviour and the environmental factors linked to that behaviour (Evans, Evans, and Gable, 1989). This evaluation may aid in the identification of events and variables that are continuously present in those circumstances (Foster-Johnson and Dunlap, 1993; Dunlap et al., 1993). How students can be trained to self-manage or self-regulate their behaviour? Students can be taught to manage or regulate their own behaviour through instructing them utilization of management of their behaviour on their own involving self-recording, self-monitoring and self-instruction, self-evaluation, self-punishment, and self-reinforcement and intervention plans having multiple-components (Ruhl, Peterson and Hughes, 1988; Carter, 1993; Drabman and Rosenbaum, 1979). Various works like Nelson et al.,1991; McCarl, Svobodny, and Beare, 1991; Prater et al.,1991, concentrating on techniques of self-management have exhibited efficiency of self-direction steps for addressing the conduct alteration as well as academic achievement (Yell and Shriner, 1997). Conclusion Future Review and Question The detailed discussion of behaviourism, its implications and the review of classroom structure based in Saudi Arabia reveal on the facet of disruptive behaviour issues that the mainstream classes should be taught separately while proper arrangement needed for the classrooms based on SEBD as a separate entity. An analytical study needed to research the following question for adapting a new policy and practice based on SEBD in Saudi Arabia. “What efficacious strategies may be adopted to endure elementary students having bahvioural and emotional troubles within conventional schoolrooms?” References Alberto, P. A. And Troutman, A. C. (1995). 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