African american women underrepresantation in higher education - Dissertation Example

? African American Women Underrepresentation in Higher Education African American Women Underrepresentation in Higher Education Introduction The African American women play a very important role in the academic field (Hockaday, J & Puyear, 2000; Davies, 1998). Since the beginning of 21st century, women have been integrated into the administration in most institutions of higher learning. However, they are hardly recognized and are only seen subordinates to the white women or black men. They are seen as a group that has no experience, even though they are equally competent with their colleagues (Anderson and Ramey, 1998). This alone calls for further research to find out the issues that surround the African American women in higher education. Still, there is a lot that needs to be done despite the fact that research has been done concerning the same. Research has in the past mainly concentrated on the students and the administration as a whole. This leaves the plight of the African American women unattended to. This literature review examines the following aspects. For one, I consider the policies that have been made by the judiciary, legislature and the executive concerning the African American women in higher education. Secondly, the literature review focuses on the implementation of these policies, with an in depth focus on the state of Georgia. The third aspect that I will consider is the place of women in higher education. I will approach this by giving a comprehensive description of the same. Lastly, I will consider the future considerations of the policies that can enhance women’s representation in future. Main problems faced by African American women administrators The issues that face many African American women have their roots from wrong perceptions in higher learning, limiting the chances of their representation in the administration. The issues of racism and sexism give the summary of the reasons why women face setbacks in higher learning representation. Four main problems can be identified from these two major factors. For one, they face isolation from other administrators, which leads to tokenism. Secondly, they face problems of disrespect and are not exposed to chances of acquiring power (Robson, 1985). This further leads to lack of influence and bottlenecks in achieving authority in these institutions. The third aspect that challenges these women is the prejudice on whether they are competent enough to lead other or make good management decision. Their families are also demanding, giving them limited chances of advancing in their careers. Fourthly, they face inequities in the opportunities of promotion and pay increase in these institutions (Eaglya and Johnson,1990). Many women have not been exposed to the opportunities of presidency. More so, they are still underrepresented in the faculties and in the senior most positions in the higher learning institutions. African American women have had to face limited chances in enrollment in the universities (Robson, 1985). This is mainly in North America, where a majority of women have no access to education. This explains why it is hard to have representation in the universities in such areas. The women also have balance between the traditional roles as homemakers and their professional careers. They are expected to do more than men, limiting their chances of rising as professional in any field (Eaglya and Johnson,1990). Further, their own views on what they are supposed to do in every day of their life, which limits their chances of fighting for their promotion in higher learning institutions (Robson, 1985). The responsibilities are both demanding, which means that a woman has limited chances of further education and thoroughness in their professionals. These are the very factors that warrant promotion and enhancement of leadership skills. Still, many women feel that their professional careers are secondary to their family roles and duties. Black women lack support by their spouses in the progression of their careers. Men will sometimes feel that their career is of more importance than that of men. This means that they have to face setbacks when they try to advance in education and in the fight for their promotion. In this same regard, there are stereotypes personalities within the institutions, who will do anything in the bid to frustrate the efforts of the black American women (Allen et al, 1995). They are sometimes viewed as incapable, particularly in the light of the past they have had; that of slavery. Their position is therefore perceived to be lower than they vie for. This stereotypical view of these women is not only among the administrators, but also amongst the students. Therefore, they have to struggle to prove their capabilities in administering successfully within these institutions. Other factors include glass ceilings, being alienated from the males, and career interruptions due to various factors (Allen et al, 1995). These factors are all against the advancement of the careers for African American women, not only in higher learning, but also in other careers. There is still one more factor, which is the major concern in this study. This is that lack of legislative measures to ensure that women have chances to advance in their career. The government becomes a good place for these women to fall back to, especially in the light of the very many factors that hinder their career advancement. The History Of African American Women In Higher Education Before the civil war, most African American women were not educated.(Allen et al, 1995). Negro education only became a reality after the passing of several policies by the government. On the contrary, men had been allowed this privilege, many years prior to the change of laws to allow women into public institutions. These years are estimated at 200; years that lapsed after the Harvard College had been founded for the men. The first black woman to obtain a degree was Lucy session, who graduated with a degree in literature (Allen et al, 1995). The other black woman was Mary Patterson who graduated with a degree in arts. These two women received the degrees from Oberlin College from the year 1850. Shortly afterwards, more women were admitted in colleges, and completed their degrees amidst many setbacks. After graduation, many women started looking for chances in the administrative organs of the higher learning institutions (Geiger, 2000). The first African American woman administrator was Fanny Coppin, who became a principle in the institute of colored youth, Philadelphia. This was in the year 1869. Twenty years down the line, Josephine Silone became a professor, heading the department of natural sciences at Lincoln University. The 19th and 20th century was a point of opposition for many black women (Allen et al, 1995). They were opposed by universities and colleges, whether white or black owned. The women did not however, give up. They continued learning and vying for positions in the administration of the higher learning institutions(Robson, 1985). In 1890, there were only thirty women who had managed to get baccalaureate degrees. This was only a third of the number of black men who had attained the same degrees. Further the number was not anything comparable to the number of women attaining the same degrees at that time. The increase of the number of African American women graduating from colleges only came after the twentieth century (Allen et al, 1995). This was the period when many African American people in general were pushing for political and social change. Groups such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People were formed to push up for such agendas. At this point many black women were ready to enhance their literacy levels. They therefore enrolled in many institutions in the bid to not only learn, but also to uplift their race. Many institutions were formed to advocate for the literacy of the African American women in the institutions of higher learning (Geiger, 2000; Perkins, 1987). For example, the Bennett College and the Association of Deans of Women and Advisors to Girls in Negro Schools were founded for the very reason of promoting their literacy. The end result was an increase of the women graduating from colleges and universities all over America. Indeed, more black women were enrolled in colleges that were the men during this period(Robson, 1985). In all this while, women were obtaining degrees in segregated colleges for the blacks. However, after 1943, many laws were made to allow for desegregation, which meant that more black women would graduate from the white owned universities. The courts ruled that it was not logical for women to continue waiting for black colleges to advance before women obtained further education. African American women continued to advance both in education and in administration in the higher learning institutions during the fifties. More women were able to actively advocate for the rights of the minorities, some facing dismissal for their firm grounds on the same. The legal intervention that happened in the periods 1950-1960 helped in the desegregation and enrollment of women into the higher education. In the seventies, many barriers had been overcome, which helped more women to take up administration roles (Geiger, 2000). Elaine Jones was the first black woman to graduate with a law degree from the University of Virginia. She further promoted to head the defense and education funds organizations in the same institution. Mary berry was the chancellor of university of Colorado from 1976, a major stride for the black American women. In the 1980’s more administrators were chose from this group. The names that are notable include Johnetta Cole, Mariam Wright and Naira Sudarkasa. The rates of women who continued to take administration roles in higher education institutions continued to increase in the twentieth century. However, despite all these efforts, the growth of these women n in administration has been slow. The numbers are still low, compared to other administrators (Robson, 1985). Policies That Have Been Made For African American Women In Higher Education The American universities are majorly privately owned, with a few public institutions owned and managed by the government (Eaglya and Johnson,1990). The privately owned institutions are managed by the churches and other humanitarian organizations, and are not meant to profit the administrators. The government has over time come up with regulations on how to mange these institutions, offering clear policies on employment and admission of the students. The government does not dictate how the institutions are administered, but it gives clear guidelines on some specific issues that affect the majority. For many years, the black American women had limited chances of advancing their education, even more than taking administration roles in the institutions (Carey, 1996). However, in the current decades, we find more and more women graduating from colleges and advancing to other levels with ease. This has been majorly due to good policies that have been by the state, to ensure that men and women alike have equal rights. These rights touch on education and other social amenities that pertain to the normal American life. However, taking up administration roles in higher education is an issue that faces policy bottlenecks in most institutions. When a black woman talks of their experience as an administrator, they are quick to point to several factor (Geiger, 2000)s. These include: lack of acceptance, disrespect and isolation among others. They are not only discriminated on the basis of their race, but also on their gender. The black woman comes from a past that limits her from achieving much. She is perceived as a slave, a sex tool or one that belongs to the lowest ranking class in the society. Names are used to refer to her; names that are only meant to bring her down to nothing. This is one of the reasons why revealing the information to a researcher is hard. It explains why little research has been done in this area. One may want to trace the policies that influence African American women in higher education from the famous affirmative action by the government. An affirmative action is a policy that is meant to solve discriminatory actions that a specific group faces. The group facing this kind of discrimination is usually the minority in the society, and that have a difficult time dealing with the problem. In higher education, the group that the government has targeted has been the African American women (Geiger, 2000). The aim of the government taking such kind of measures is to ensure that there is equitable distribution of resources and opportunities among the higher learning employees (Geiger, 2000). The government seeks to ensure that rules and regulation are followed so that equal distribution of resources is prevalent in these institutions. Affirmative action tries to address the problems that have are traced back to history, with the special consideration of the groups that are affected. Discrimination does not end with the affirmative action, but some of the inequities are addressed making it possible to reduce it. Before 1865, the rights of the African Americans were not considered in the constitution. They were mere slaves who were subject to their owner’s will and pleasure (Carey, 1996). In 1787, the constitution that was drafted considered as three fifths of a person. Therefore, women did not have rights to do anything, whether white or black in race. The black American women were not allowed to become literate, something that the constitution seemed to endorse. However, there was a positive move in 1868 when an amendment was made on the constitution, giving assurance to all the American citizens of protection. This provided a legal basis for affirmative action to take place in America. It was not however easy for the enforcement of the law even though the law was clearly written. In 1954, the ruling concerning a certain court case gave some breakthrough for the previous amendment on the constitution (Carey, 1996; Logan, 1969). The court ruled that the racial discrimination in the education spheres was not in line with the constitution of the land. This was because it was promoting inequality in the education system. Further, the president, John Kennedy appointed a group of people who would help bring to a close this kind of inequality. From then on, affirmative action programs were adopted in the constitution. In 1964, discrimination was banned based on race color sex or religion (Amey and Vanderlimden, 2002). The institutions that would propel such kind of discrimination were warned, while others were unfunded by the government. That act was against all the institutions that would fail to employ an individual based on their race, religion or sex. Further, it came out strongly against classifications or segregation based on different groups of people. The government went ahead to ensure that the institution would comply with the affirmative action (Carey, 1996). Therefore, an office was established, the office of federal contract compliance programs to monitor the enforcement of the laws. It would further look into programs that would be generally acceptable in the institutions. Further a commission known as the equal employment opportunity commission was established to put in place laws and regulations that are hinder discrimination. It was also mandated to enforce the equal legislation policy of 1963, the act on age discrimination of 1967and the disabilities act of 1990. Failure to comply with the rules that have been put in place by these two offices may lead a legal suit in a court of law. The institutions of higher learning had to reform their recruitment practices. From the time of affirmative action development and enforcement, most institutions of higher learning decided to endorse the laws in their departments (Allen et al, 1995). They made moves to add to the number of women in the institutions, together with other minorities in the society. Women were encouraged to apply for senior most positions within the institutions. More so, the student’s intake included the under-represented groups in the society. The effectiveness of the affirmative action was questioned many years after inclusion in the constitution (Thelin, 2004). Many people saw it as one that was against the needed reforms in the institutions of higher learning. It failed to resolve the problems of discrimination, which was the expected end. Rather, many people felt that it became the problem. The white women achieved more benefits than the African American women, giving room for people to question the affirmative action effectiveness. Other policies that were directly addressing the plight of women included the title VII, equal pay act title IX and equal opportunities amendment. The equal pay act of 1963 prohibited the institutions from paying less to the women who were working under similar conditions and performing the same task as men (Geiger, 2000; lbino, 1992). ). The title VII was meant to prohibit discrimination based on gender, race, color or religion. The Economic Employment Act addressed the plight of black women in the higher learning institutions. All these acts are intertwined with the affirmative action that happened after the executive order of 1964. The united state of America’s constitution generally advocates for equality between genders. Discrimination based on gender or race is discouraged at any level of government or private institution. The application of such policies are found wanting in many institution f higher learning Implementation of the Policies In Georgia The state of Georgia has many institutions of higher learning that are black owned (Corrigan, 2002). A higher percentage of African American students and administrators are recorded. The women have therefore come up with organizations and groups that represent their issues in Georgia. Despite the fact that many women have been enrolled in the administration and management of the universities, they are underrepresented due to a number of reasons. The policies that directly affect these women do not seem to provide much help as far as the plight of black women is concerned. The changes in the law only warranted the entry of women in the institutions of higher learning. However, it did not address the problems of equity and fairness (Eisenmann, 2006). The women face many problems that need to be addressed in the policies that the government may consider in the future. Women have fought for the representation of women in the colleges for long, but their experience remains wanting. According to the law of Georgia, there are various acts that have been established to ensure equity in the representation of black women in the administration (Robson, 1985). Article 15 and sixteen of the same law have direct principles that are meant to ensure that women are represented despite their race or gender. Article 15 defines the departments and faculties that are supposed to be put in place in any institution (Thelin, 2004). Article 16 allows for any person who is interested in decision making to come on board. Everybody is therefore accessible to the management team and forums. Still in the same article, everybody has freedom to express their views and opinions within the institutions. The law of Georgia prohibits discrimination of any person on the basis of their gender, race or religion among other factors (Ruben, 1996; King, 1999). Rather, it states that everybody deserves equal treatment. Still, it advocates for fairness during the institutions general elections. The elections also have to be transparent and open for public scrutiny. These principles cannot be revised by any of the institutions or individuals. An article 33 of the same law continues to define who the personnel of these institutions would be (Cantor and Bernay, 1992; Tetreault, 1985). It defines them as professors, associate and assistant professors. They are also required to have led in many research programs, or actually been involved in the academic research in the institutions. In article 34, the rules of filling for the positions are defined (Kerr, 1991; Work, 1946). For one, the principle of filling for these positions should always be based on an open competition. The competition should always be fair and transparent. The dates of elections are supposed to be made public for at least one month prior to elections date. In article 37, the rights of academic personnel include taking part in the management of the academic institution in their own given capacities (Fisher et al 1998; Corrigan, 2002)). They are also allowed to teach and research as accorded by the institution. They are entitled to making decisions on the curriculum, development and methods of teaching. A leave is warranted them in every year, and a further leave after five years to develop their career and obtain the skills that they need in their teaching (Brint & Karabel, 1989). In article 38, the dismissal of the personnel and administrators is based on several factors, none of which border on race or gender (Robson, 1985). The personnel are also elected on the basis of secret ballot, from the lowest ranking to the senior most ranking individuals. The law the rights of African American women in higher learning institutions are clear and representative of their problems they have faced in the past (Horowitz, 1987). The women have very little excuse, it seems, for not rising in the institution’s ladder, achieving the very best that they ought. It is however not the situation in the real world. According to Bower, (1996) the policies are clear but there are still gaps within the institutions, leaving one with the question of why this is experienced. While one agrees that women have been able to enroll in the institutions in higher numbers threes still underrepresentation. The numbers of black women administrators has increased, but not comparable to other groups such as the white females and black men. There are chances that many other factors limit women in Georgia from being represented in the administration in higher learning institutions (Gardner, 1990). The thought pattern for these women does still limit them. They still do not see the chances of representation and achievement in these institutions. Therefore, some do not even try to fight for representation. The problems of sexism and racism continue to haunt women (Eaglya and Johnson,1990).. It dose not matter what policies are put in place to ensure that black women are represented in the higher learning institutions. The major problems have continued to limit their chances of advancing in their careers, making it hard for the law to intervene on their behalf. The affirmative action seems to be a written law, in whose compliance is some sort of business strategy to lure people into the institutions (Bennis & Nanus, 1985). Whereas the institutions may be praised for endorsing the constitution, this group of women will give a different story. They speak of being hired into the institutions in large numbers. The world believes that this is enough (Birnbaum, 1992). However, they continue to take the low positions, with promotion being an impossible thing to achieve for the whole lot that is hired. Women will therefore positions such as janitors, clerks, and secretaries in various institutions departments, despite the fact that they are equally qualified as the men. Their promotion is never warranted even after much education and advancement in their career. Some will talk of being positioned at dead end positions, which gives them very minimal chances of promotion (Diamond, 1992). The jobs that they hold are related to the minority, which ensures that they will never rise to any higher levels. Their cultural backgrounds are eliminated, and they are required to abandon the values once they join such institutions. On the other hand, the white cultural background is actually used to hire the individuals into the institutions. This creates a gap between the speeds in which both groups adjust to the new environment (Bond, 1976). The black women will obviously take long to adjust, compared to their white colleagues. The cultural differences limit the African American woman, who views everything with the plight of others in mind (Bailey, 1982). This woman is specialized to placing the needs of others first and she has to be troubled with making others feel comfortable before she fights for her rights. She is people oriented, and spends more time with the students and other workers. However, in many institutions, many women do not recognize such efforts. They therefore go unrewarded, majorly because the criterion of rewarding these people is different from that which the institutions use (Birnbaum, 1992). Isolation is something that these women have to face many times in their professional careers (Bass, 1990). The African American woman is isolated. She has no mentor or an acquaintance to share her troubles with. This means that she has to walk alone in all the troubling moments and in good times. The minority may be recruited in the institutions, creating a sense of concern for them. However they need people around them to encourage them to move forward and fight for the top positions within the institutions. However, the black American woman does not have this privilege. It therefore becomes hard for her to progress in her career, majorly because she lacks people around her to give her an encouraging hand. Tokenism is one word that most of these women will have to face in these institutions (Gardiner et al, 2000). The colleagues face the woman as a token for the institutions, with the perception that the only reason she was hired was because of the institutions wanted to fulfill affirmative action requirements. According to Carney, (1999) these women are therefore isolated and labeled in their own class. To ignore that such differences do not exist is hard for the women (Bennis & Nanus, 1985). They are never able to overcome the problems that come with this kind of perception, making it hard for them to advance in their career. The institutions place the women in the places where only they can intervene, and not any other group (Tillman & Cochran, 2000). The tasks are not very attractive but may not be performed by any other group of people within the institutions. There are institutions where women are assigned duties such as intervention on ethnicity, and racial matters that affect the African Americans (Churchill, 1994). The whites on the other hand are given the roles of representing their own race. This obviously creates great divisions amongst the work force. Some of the roles that the women are supposed to play are very involving, and may take much time to deal with (Cantor, and Bernay, 1992). The responsibilities that they are supposed to handle are sometimes so overwhelming, primarily because they are few within these institutions. All their time is spent while trying to fulfill their roles, which limits their chances of career advancement and training Women are placed at a unique place by the affirmative action, allowing for chances of sexism to prevail (Shakeshaft, 1999). Most colleagues still treat these women unequally, referring them only on the basis of their positions as black females. Their competency is never seen, even after many years in the same departments. The issue of sexism is at most times seen as acceptable by many people in the institutions, yet it denies these women the right to prove their worth. The women are therefore appointed at lower positions and offices with no chances of promotion or rewards. The law allows for the entry of black women in the institutions that once belonged to the whites (Gupton, & Slick, 1996). They would do this either as students or as personnel. However, they still face resistance. Cantor and Bernay (1992) indicate that the ideologies and the principles of racism have not changed as the law has. This is the major problem, making women fear being in some meetings and positions that warrant ridicule and insults. The administration comes up with rules and regulations that are only meant to ensure that specific group do not access authority (Bailey, 1982). The black women are therefore forced to comply with these rules, despite the fact that the law is clear on some given issues. Institutional racism has given the African American women limited chances of promotion in higher education’s administration (Brint & Karabel, 1989; Tetreault, 1985). The women are perceived to be equal with their colleague when legal procedures are followed. However, equality is not applied when deciding how these women should behave in their wok place. She is expected to work hard, very quietly and achieve targets within the limited time. However, white women are not subject to such expectations (Whitaker & Lane, 1990). They may be quite but not necessarily working hard in their jobs. Men on the other hand can get away with the anything, and the expectations from the administrators may be less serious. The African American women in Georgia still face discrimination and set backs in their profession (Barrow, 1990; Carney, 1999) ). Their careers do not seem to progress, not only in the institution of higher learning but also in many other areas. The situation in Georgia is a representation of many other institutions in the world today. These women have the same capabilities as other people do but still face serious setbacks to rise in the corporate ladder. The situation needs more stern measures to ensure that these women are represented in every area. The issue of competency has been a wrong perception against the women (Scandura, 1990). Their education qualifications have been tested so many times and have been proved worth while. These same women have been able to administer in many other areas and in different countries. Their only problem is that they are not given a chance to become the best that they are supposed to be. In Georgia and in many other states, it has been proved that law could be only a written document without any meaning (Allen et al,1995). The policy made must always be implemented either by the judiciary or the executive arms of the state. The Future for the African American Woman in the Higher Learning Institutions The policy makers still hold a prime role in ensuring that the black women have the same experience as other genders and races (Gregory, 1982; ). Whereas it has been instrumental in ensuring that women get opportunities in the higher learning institutions, there is need for change to deal with the pending problems. The representation of women can only come as a result of further change in the policy making process and in the implementation While the affirmative action has achieved much in this specific area, there are clauses that must be added to make it more effective (Kouzes & Posner, 1987; Jablonski, 1996) ). It ought not to be perceived as something that must be fulfilled by the administrators, but as something that is for the better good of the institutions. A good name should not come before the rights of individuals (Keller, 1999). Therefore, the issues that touch on the rights of these women should be given priority in the higher learning institutions. Some of the issues that could be highlighted in the affirmative action, in the future, should be on the percentages that must be guaranteed in the administration body. For example, they would suggest a third of the administrative positions to beset aside for the minorities. As much as elections are based on fair completion, women should be given an environment where they can get the positions that they deserve (Hobbs and Stoops, 2000; Carney, 1999). The problem with kind of an approach is that those elected are perceived differently than others in the same capacity. As noted earlier, they are same time isolated because they did not get the administrative positions through the same process that others used (Amey and Vanderlimden, 2002). This is a situation that is only solved by a change of perception. Attitude must indeed change, either by the black American women or the white colleagues in these institutions (Bass, 1990). If these women will be seen as competent and capable of management in any capacity, some of the legislative problems would indeed vanish. The subordination of the African American women and their negative perception is not acceptable in the era of global change (McDada, 1997; Tetreault, 1985). Therefore, incrimination of the acts various institution against these women should be made constitutional. The perpetrators of the discrimination should face serious consequences for involving in some of these acts (Garcia, 1997; Bowen et al, 1998; Fleming et al, 1978). This will make it mandatory for the relevant authorities to consider the plight of these women with seriousness that the matter deserves. Further, the institutions should be made to have clear cut rules on promotion and issuing of rewards (Work, 1946). For instance, there should be rules on the length of time a person should work before they are promoted. A specific period should be written in the employment and labor laws to ensure that every person is accessible to promotional opportunities (Anderson and Ramey, 1998). According to Shaults, (2001) it is not enough for the legislators and the judiciary to make law that affects the black American women in the higher education. What is needed is implementation of the acts in these institutions. There is need for the authorities to follow up to ensure that the due course of the law takes place. This would the situation where some institutions come up with their own rules and regulations that hinder these women from rising to positions of authority (Bond, 1976; Guy, 1982). The global world operates in a world of equality (Merriam, 1998; Kotter, 1990; Feinberg, 1998). The rights of the minorities have become paramount, and governments have made serious moves to see to their legislation and implementation. The international laws forbid people from discriminating others based on any given factor (Feinberg, 1998; Anderson, 1988). Therefore, these women should benefit from the international justice in the future. They will take administrative positions in the higher education, not only in America, but also in the global front. The implementation of this calls for a willing government and people to make strides towards this (Bailey,1982). The African American women should also be ready to make adjustments in their though pattern and cultural limitations. This will help them embrace the changing policy, making it possible for the law to take its due course. Conclusion The African American woman has faced underrepresentation in higher education for a long time. History has shown a trend of making slow policy making and implantation that will address this problem. as a result, women have had to take the lower ranking jobs in these institutions. The policies that have been made in the past have not addressed the real problem, which has been the main set back for these women. The equality clauses and the affirmative action may have helped women to gain the entry in these institutions, but there is still a problem. women are still incapable of rising due to wrong attitudes and perceptions by the larger part of the society. As the times change, the African American woman has come to the end point of tolerating discrimination. She needs to take her rightful place and contribute to the education system effectively. The government is called upon to come up with a comprehensive plan on ensuring that every person is represented in all the states institutions. There is a need to look into the plight off the minority, not because they are incapable, but because the corporate world and the society discriminates them. There is therefore need to ensure that the correct policy is adopted, which would be the beginning of justice in the society. References Allen, K., Jacobson, S., & Lomotey, K. 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