Do state assessments truly measure a disabled students' intellectual abilities - Research Paper Example

ASSESSMENTS FOR DISABLED Assessments for Disabled Do They Truly Measure Intellectual Abilities? Word Count:5,040 (20 pages) ABSTRACT Here it will be discussed whether state assessments for disabled students truly measure their intellectual abilities, and, on one hand, it will be argued that New York state assessments truly do perform a wonderful job measuring differently-abled students’ abilities; on the other hand, it will also be argued that New York state assessments, on some levels, do not necessarily truly measure differently-abled students’ intellectual abilities. Included in this writing are comprehensive definitions of accommodations, relevant findings guiding their selection, various points of view regarding accommodation, current research findings analyzing various points of view regarding accommodations and how they impact student performance, and future directions related to the role of assistive technology. I.Introduction Here it will be analyzed both the pro and the con side of state assessments in New York, and whether they truly do measure disabled or differently-abled students’ intellectual abilities, through looking at various elements of the issue from both sides. The areas that will be discussed on the pro side are: the comprehensive definition of testing accommodations with the purpose of providing testing to students with disabilities; relevant findings related to the testing accommodations for the students’ benefit; student characteristics that would guide the selection of appropriate accommodations; the future of educational technology. The areas that will be discussed on the con side are: how to ‘level the playing field’ for a student with a disability; how misused accommodations can make up a skill the student doesn’t have and inflate test scores; how students’ scores in high-stakes assessments do not really (or necessarily) reflect what students with disabilities know and are able to do; and finally, how testing accommodations are used and how they impact student performance. II. How State Assessments Truly Measure Differently-Abled Students’ Intellectual Abilities A. Comprehensive Definition of Testing Accommodations Including the Purpose of Providing Testing to Students with Disabilities Students with disabilities should be afforded the same kinds of opportunities to do well in high-stakes testing. This is proven in a document released by The University of the State of New York?and The State Education Department?Office of Vocational and Education Services ?for Individuals with Disabilities (VESID). It states: According to Test Access and Accommodations for Students with Disabilities (2006), “All students, including students with disabilities, are expected to learn and achieve high standards.  To meet this goal, students with disabilities must have access to general education curriculum courses, electives and required assessments.  This was affirmed in 1997 when the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was amended to require that students with disabilities, including students with severe cognitive disabilities through the development of a State alternate assessment, participate in State and districtwide assessments” (pgh. 1). Further, it has been noted that appropriate testing accommodations can and shall have been made in order to take into account the fact that there are several different types of differently-abled learners. What should matter is that these students are given the same types of opportunities as students in regular and Honors courses to achieve their best, at whatever level of schooling they are at—but especially in high school so they are adequately prepared to move on to higher education beyond the secondary level. According to Test Access and Accommodations for Students with Disabilities (2006), “IDEA 2004 further strengthened this requirement by adding several new provisions that will ensure that students have access to State tests and that test results are valid and reliable. These provisions include the requirement that State and local districts develop guidelines for the provision of appropriate testing accommodations and, to the extent feasible, use universal design principles in developing and administering State and districtwide tests. These efforts are also consistent with the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), which requires each State to implement a system of accountability for schools and districts that is designed to ensure that all children perform at or above proficiency on state academic achievement standards and state assessments” (pgh. 1). These accommodations that are called for routinely help assess students’ true intellectual abilities by helping students demonstrate how they have attained a mastery of certain skill sets. According to Test Access and Accommodations for Students with Disabilities (2006), “Many students with disabilities will require testing accommodations in order to participate in testing programs on an equal basis with their nondisabled peers. Such accommodations provide students with the ability to demonstrate mastery of skills and attainment of knowledge without being limited or unfairly restricted due to [having] a disability” (pgh. 2). Students should not be discriminated against because of their disability. This means that all children should have equal access to accommodations should they need them—provided that they do have documented evidence of some kind of disability on file as required after having gone through the process of RTI (response to intervention). It’s important that any student has access to accommodations if needed. B. Relevant Findings Related to the Testing Accommodations for Students’ Benefit Several studies have most definitely proven that testing accommodations for students’ benefit has helped them maintain some sort of edge over their non-disabled peers without giving them an unfair advantage. Take the case study of LeShaun, an 18-year-old African-American male senior at a public high school in New York City. LeShaun has a learning disability, undiagnosed but obvious problems related to dyslexia when reading, and is slow to process information. LeShaun also suffers from a short-term memory deficit which makes learning new information difficult. LeShaun’s case of having a learning disability is not uncommon. There are many students in the public schools all over New York state who have learning disabilities, which should be recognized by the school counselor and taken into account by the special education team working within the schools. Rick LaVoie, in his video F.A.T. City Workshop, describes the fact that we must do things differently as educators when it comes to learning disabled students. A student like LeShaun would be no exception. Since he suffers from undiagnosed dyslexia, his difficulties reading are immense. LaVoie offered a picture in the video with the lowercase letter “d” showing how a dyslexic student reads his or her book. He turned the letter over to make it a “b” and then turned it upside down to make it a letter “p.” If this wasn’t confusing enough, he also showed how letters on the page would appear to a student like LeShaun, having the letters range from very high to very low on multiple lines, making it difficult if not impossible to read. In the case of LeShaun, if he follows the pattern of an individual who is dyslexic, his brain will rely heavily on the frontal lobe, which is based on longer-term memory and not functional tasks; the normal brain, however, would function in such a way that the parietal lobe, which deals with sensory information, as well as the occipital lobe, which deals primarily with sight. This would seriously affect how LeShaun responded to reading tasks, and proper accommodations would have to be made so that reading activities stressed similar and dissimilar events (compare and contrast) and the use of opposites, which would be geared towards the part of the brain being utilized. LeShaun is also slow to process information. Rick LaVoie, in F.A.T. City Worshop, had a segment where was also a picture of a cow shown where the student could not figure out what the animal was. The example was supposed to show that the perception of the learning disabled student would not be to properly identify an object that was vague in presentation. LeShaun, like students LaVoie talks about, will need special care and attention, and personal tutoring, not given to other students. He needs someone who will go over his assignments with him at a pace he can handle. This includes more time for tests, oral tests and quizzes, and possibly having a modified grading scale. C. Student Characteristics That Would Guide the Selection of Appropriate Accommodations What could limit or diminish the capacity for students to learn and achieve at their highest levels? What are some early signs of learning disabilities? Further, what prevention measures or techniques or activities can be used to overcome or resolve problems or barriers to learning? These are all questions that must be answered in order to note the student characteristics that would guide the selection of appropriate accommodations for students. Many children have learning disabilities, have undiagnosed but obvious problems related to dyslexia when reading, and are slow to process information. Some students also suffer from a short-term memory deficit which makes learning new information difficult. Students having learning disabilities is not an uncommon occurrence. There are many students in the schools in the United States who have learning disabilities, which should be recognized by the school counselor and taken into account by the special education team working within the schools. Learning disabilities can greatly affect students’ ability to learn and achieve at their highest levels. Various disabilities, including children who have time-constraints, anxiety, embarrassment, and are slow to process, as well as those who have other disabilities, may be at a disadvantage. Students who have visual or hearing impairments may similarly be at a loss. They too must have an education that is comparable to other students’ education, but this comes at a price. Students must have the same access to all of the materials that non-disabled students do in order to succeed. Disabled students must not be treated like they are second-class citizens. In order to ensure that this is the case, disabled students’ IEP’s should be given first priority when a teacher develops his or her lesson plans. Disabled students should always be included in the overall lesson plan and be given the least restrictive learning environment, as dictated by law. A disability can limit a student’s capacity to learn at his or her highest levels because there are barriers to his or her success. He or she must overcome several hurdles just to be able to keep up with other students. Students have difficulty learning when their ability to function is hindered somehow. For example, students with visual difficulties may have trouble seeing their assignments properly. Students with hearing problems may mishear the teacher. Also, they may not hear important instructions such as on a quiz or test. Students with time-constraints disabilities may need more time to complete tasks. As such, it may be difficult for them to work under time pressure that other students don’t have difficulties with, basically because they are relatively normal. Students with embarrassment issues may be too shy to finish a quiz or test late, and thus will hand in unfinished work. It is the teacher’s responsibility to make sure that these students also have the same shot at receiving a good grade as those without embarrassment. Students who have anxiety should be placed in a relaxed atmosphere and be allowed to try to complete quizzes and tests in an atmosphere that is non-threatening. Likewise, students who have difficulty processing information should be given more time on quizzes and tests in order to fully understand everything that is being presented to them. Early learning signs of learning disabilities should be diagnosed quickly so that students can get the help they need. Teachers should refer students to the appropriate counseling professionals in the school should they notice that students are having trouble with the material, either because they can’t hear, see, or have an otherwise impending difficulty of some sort. There is not any good reason why a student can’t turn in assignments—unless, however, if that student is having trouble in school due to an undiagnosed disability. In that case, something must be done right away to counteract the effects of the student’s disability on his or her performance. Rick LaVoie, in his video F.A.T. City Workshop, describes the fact that educators must do things differently when it comes to learning disabled students. Students with multiple problems are the rule not the exception. Since some students suffer from undiagnosed dyslexia, their difficulties with reading are immense. LaVoie offered a picture in the video with the lowercase letter “d” showing how a dyslexic student reads his or her book. He turned the letter over to make it a “b” and then turned it upside down to make it a letter “p.” If this wasn’t confusing enough, he also showed how letters on the page would appear to a learning disabled student, having the letters range from very high to very low on multiple lines, making it difficult if not impossible to read. In the case of some students, if they follow the pattern of an individual who is dyslexic, their brains will rely heavily on long-term memory and not functional tasks. The normal brain, however, deals with sensory information and with sight. This would seriously affect how students responded to reading tasks, and proper accommodations would have to be made so that reading activities stressed similar and dissimilar events (compare and contrast) and the use of opposites. Such accommodations would be geared towards the part of the brain being utilized. Some learning-disabled students are also slow to process information. Rick LaVoie, in F.A.T. City Worshop, had a segment where was also a picture of a cow shown where the student could not figure out what the animal was. The example was supposed to show that the perception of the learning disabled student would not be to properly identify an object that was vague in presentation. Many young learners, like students LaVoie talks about, will need special care and attention, and personal tutoring, not given to other students. Learning disabled students need someone who will go over their assignments with them at a pace they can handle. According to Juntunen et. al. (2001), “Approximately 11% of children 6 to 19 years of age…were overweight and obese” (pp. 18). Students’ health can affect how they score on tests and quizzes, as well as affect their general overall studiousness. So, what can be done to prevent and/or help students who have disabilities? The best step is early detection. According to Hallahan (2000), accommodations include more time for tests, oral tests and quizzes, and having a modified grading scale, and changing perceptions about students with disabilities does not come easily (pp. 48). Students with visual difficulties should have their tests and quizzes written in large print. They should also have appropriate devices available to them in order to make print bigger. Students with hearing problems may ask for the teacher to repeat things he or she has said in order to make sure they do not mishear. Also, the teacher should speak louder for students who have hearing problems. Students with time-constraints disabilities will need more time to complete tasks. Time pressure situations should not be an issue. Students with time constraints should not have to worry that their time is going to run out to complete a quiz or test. Students with time-constraints should be able to complete tests and quizzes on their own time and not be disturbed. Students with embarrassment issues may be given a special place in the classroom where they can work undisturbed. It is the teacher’s responsibility to make sure that embarrassment students are not unduly embarrassed about their performance on assessments. Students who have anxiety should be placed in a non-threatening atmosphere where they can complete their assessments in peace. Additionally, students who have difficulty processing information should be allowed more time on assessments so that they can comprehend all of the material. Special education students may, but do not always, have learning disabilities. These students may also have undiagnosed dyslexia. Finally, these students struggle with processing information. It is hoped that with the help of educators at their schools, IEP’s will be developed to help them, as well as other measures that can be taken into account in order to make their learning experiences more palatable. D. The Future of Educational Technology Learning with Technology is an article that has a broad focus. For purposes of brevity, we will focus on highlights in the evolution of educational technology, the process of learning, learning with educational technology, and emerging technologies. Finally, some unique views will be elaborated upon. According to Marshall (2002), Thomas Edison once thought that books would “…soon be obsolete in the schools…[and that students would be taught] through the motion picture” (pp. 1). Edison was wrong, but World War II came along and the U.S. government spent $1 billion dollars to develop and distribute training films, and further, the “…Division of Visual Aids for War Training in the U.S. Office of Education…designed and produced 457 sound-motion pictures, 457 instructor manuals, and 432 silent filmstrips,” according to Marshall (2002, pp. 1). This was the beginning of the use of technology for war purposes. According to Marhsall (2002), in the 1950s, the Federal Communications Commission “set aside 242 channels for educational use…result[ing] in the development of …[what] would eventually become today’s public television stations” (pp. 2). Beyond television, the development of the personal computer (PC) has been the most significant development in recent times in the early 1970s; but, according to Marshall (2002), even with access to machines, teachers hesitated to use the machines, and lack of skills to operate the technology provided ammunition for teacher resistance (pp. 3). The arrival of the Internet, however, revolutionized the way people thought. According to Marshall (2002), people realized that teachers needed to “access and evaluate content, and then design instructional activities that integrated Internet content with learning objectives and traditional classroom materials” (pp. 3). According to Marshall (2002), with new changes in brain development research, there are theories like the Arousal Theory, the Short-Term Gratification Theory, and the Interest Stimulation Theory which suggest that the brain can learn through multimedia presentations and entertainment—film and television (pp. 7). Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences should not be left out of the mix either. Learning with educational technology is not complete without a discussion of the value of Sesame Street, the television program for children. Sesame Street has been around for 39 years. According to Marshall (2002), “Adolescents who viewed Sesame Street often at age 5 had significantly better grades in English, science, and mathematics; read more books for pleasure; and had higher motivation to achieve” (pp. 11). According to Marshall (2002), emerging technologies include broadband technology, webcasts (streaming video and audio transmitted from a server and viewed on a desktop), videoconferencing, digital movie making, digital TV, handheld technologies such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless technologies such as wirelessly networked notetaking (pp. 20-22). The part of this paper that one can most strongly react to and can relate to was the section regarding Sesame Street. For many years, generations of children were faithful devotee of Sesame Street, and it is believed that it has served those generations of children well. Children need good programming such as Sesame Street. While most educators don’t have a problem with other technologies, such as broadband Internet, wireless PDAs, cell phones, pagers, and the like—because kids are getting more sophisticated now—it seems like we are going to see that how a child is treated at the earlier developmental stages of his or her life is going to have the greatest effect on the child at later stages of that child’s life, regardless of whether or not he or she has the technology available for him or her to use. Educational technology is going to be useless or nearly useless to a child who has been bereft of his or her instinctual needs being met on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. In that sense, technology cannot do what needs to be done by the parent or parents. Assuming that a child has all of his or her needs being met first, then and only then can we begin to make sure that we begin to maneuver amongst the crevasse which has been created called the Digital Divide in the public schools of New York state, for one part—or wherever one is teaching. How do we begin to close the gap of the digital divide? Perhaps that is a topic to be explored at some other point in time. But for now, this is hopefully analysis that will suffice. III. Varying Points of View Regarding Testing Accommodations: How State Assessments Do Not Measure Differently-Abled Students’ Intellectual Abilities A. How to “Level the Playing Field” For a Student With a Disability: Accommodations and the Future of Assistive Technology Here we will focus on: perspective; what assistive technology is; case studies which provide insights; and an assistive technology at school age and beyond. Finally, one can provide a unique perspective about assistive technology. According to Deal (2006), looking at “federal and state regulations regarding children identified with special needs, we… find that there are a number of resources that are available to assist in acquiring…special technology for class members who have unique needs” (pp. 10). There are several kinds of technology available for students who have disabilities and we should utilize those tools as teachers. Assistive technology may be wonderful, but what is it? According to Deal (2006), assistive technology is defined as “any piece of equipment or device that may be used by a person with a disability to perform specific tasks, improve functional capabilities, and become more independent. It can help redefine what is possible for people with a wide range of cognitive, physical, or sensory disabilities” (pp. 11). Assistive technology helps those with disabilities perform everyday functions in recreation and work. It is part of what helps make peoples’ lives easier and have smoother transitions. According to Deal (2006), web pages, instructional software, and office equipment are also other forms of technology that may be used in order to enhance students with disabilities learning (pp. 12). One case study was of a student named Betsy, who used a laptop as part of her assistive technology. She had to adapt to learning how to use a standard desktop computer in order to get a job as a temporary office worker, which was a goal she had set for herself. With some adjustments to her assistive technology, she was able to get used to the new computer and transition to the new technology fine with a switch-access device. When looking at a student’s IEP, it should be noted whether or not he or she will need to have assistive technology included in their plan or not. According to Deal (2006) this includes use of tools such as “the use of word processing, use of a calculator, use of a hand-held spell checker, or text-to-speech technology” (pp. 13). Another case study involving a boy named Henry with a neuromuscular disorder went into detail about how he had his laptop programmed to say different sayings so that he could communicate better with his classmates so he could feel included, which was important. A unique perspective about assistive technology is that it can do a world of good for many students who need help, especially students like Henry who are at a disadvantage socially due to their disability. Assistive technology has the power, when proffered properly, to offer students a new world of possibility and ability to achieve great things. Assistive technology is something that should be widely used in schools in whatever manner possible in order to help students achieve their highest potential. B. How Misused Accommodations Can Make Up a Skill the Student Doesn’t Have and Inflate Test Scores Misused accommodations can definitely either make up a skill the child doesn’t have, or it could also inflate the student’s test scores. According to Logsdun (2011), “Testing accommodations may be misused and misapplied. This can artificially increase [a] child's scores. This can cause teachers overestimate his skills and ultimately lead to frustration and failure” (pgh. 4). Of course, as with any type of accommodations, the parents and the teachers must ensure that no accommodations are helping out the student in a way that could be considered cheating or unfair to other students who do not have disabilities. For example, giving less choices on a multiple-choice test might be considered unfair to the disabled student as well as to the regular student in class. Rather, the multiple-choice section may either be read aloud for a student with visual difficulties or the multiple-choice answers might be arranged in a format that might be easier for a disabled student to grasp mentally. Whatever the case, it’s important that these students are given the same opportunity to succeed as their non-disabled peers—without giving the disabled student an edge that unfairly skews his test scores in his favor, in any way, shape, or form. C. How Students’ Scores in High-Stakes Assessments Do Not Really Reflect What Students with Disabilities Know and Are Able to Do High-stakes assessment in classrooms all across the state of New York has led to the re-evaluation of what is being taught in classrooms, classrooms of children who are differently-abled learners. Learning good test-taking skills will benefit a student in situations other than for the statewide standardized, high-stakes tests—although high-stakes tests are also important, because it gives a whole new meaning to what students can achieve on national levels. Therefore, high-stakes testing is important because it is able to help educators know how students are doing by how they have performed on tests in the past. Students can use these skills in classroom test situations, improving their ability to succeed in regular education classes should they have some, being differently-abled students who are now incorporated into classrooms due to the IDEA legislation of 1997. In addition, test-taking skills may be an important for transition activities for some students with disabilities. Those students planning to continue their education after high school may have to take standardized tests such as the SAT or the ACT, and/or other placement tests. According to a New York Teachers College study by Columbia Law student J.P. Heubert (2009) says, “Even on graduation tests that measure basic skills, for example, minority students and students with disabilities usually fail at higher rates than other students, especially in the years after such tests are first introduced…while many students with disabilities [have been] excluded from state graduation-test programs…those who did participate failed at rates over 50 percent” (pgh. 10). This means that while students may have an opportunity to succeed, many of them are set up for failure with high-stakes testing because it doesn’t truly measure their intellectual abilities. There has been created an organization called the The New York Performance Standards Consortium. According to the Consortium (2011), it “represents 28 schools across New York State. Formed in 1997, the Consortium opposes high-stakes tests arguing that ‘one size does not fit all.’ Despite skepticism that an alternative to high stakes tests could work, the New York Performance Standards Consortium has...developed an assessment system that leads to quality teaching…” (pghs. 1-2). D. The Use of Testing Accommodations and How They Impact Student Performance The purpose of testing accommodations are to aid the student in completing assessment tasks without altering the actual test being given to the point where it is different than a test that a regular student with no disability would be taking. According to The Purpose of Testing Accommodations (2011), “The purpose of testing accommodations is to enable students with disabilities to participate in assessment programs on an equal basis with their nondisabled peers. Testing accommodations provide an opportunity for students with disabilities to demonstrate mastery of skills and attainment of knowledge without being limited or unfairly restricted due to the effects of a disability. Testing accommodations promote the access of students with disabilities to assessment programs as well as to more challenging courses and programs. Testing accommodations should not be excessive and should alter the standard administration of the test to the least extent possible” (pgh. 1). Thus, the kinds of elements that are being assessed should not necessarily even alter the test itself, but serve as a way to make the test more user-friendly for students who are differently-abled. This means that a test should not be significantly altered in any way, shape, or manner—but that it is accomodating to students’ various needs. IV. Conclusion It was analyzed here whether high-stakes testing in New York state schools really is able to truly measure the intellectual abilities of disabled (also known as differently-abled) students or not. An in-depth analysis of the appropriate literature found information supporting both possible avenues, and ultimately, one can only conclude that high-stakes state testing can only measure so much. The areas that were discussed on the pro side were: the comprehensive definition of testing accommodations with the purpose of providing testing to students with disabilities; relevant findings related to the testing accommodations for the students’ benefit; student characteristics that would guide the selection of appropriate accommodations; the future of educational technology. The areas that were discussed on the con side were: how to ‘level the playing field’ for a student with a disability; how misused accommodations can make up a skill the student doesn’t have and inflate test scores; how students’ scores in high-stakes assessments do not really (or necessarily) reflect what students with disabilities know and are able to do; and finally, how testing accommodations are used and how they impact student performance. It is hoped that students—whatever their ability levels—are given the appropriate chances to succeed in testing. Hopefully, in the future, our focus as educators will be not that students can get the right answers on a test, but that they will be able to leave school knowing that they have the critical thinking skills in order to help them survive in life and earn a good living based on the knowledge they learned in school—which will ultimately make them better researchers, better citizens, and ultimately—better human beings for it. BIBLIOGRAPHY Deal, W.F. (2006). Assistive technology in the classroom. US: The Technology Teacher. Duke, N., & Richhart, R. (2004). No pain, high gain. US: Scholastic. Available: . Examples of test accommodations for students with disabilities. (2011). Available: . Hallahan, D. (2000). Exceptional learners: introduction to special education. USA: Allyn and Bacon. Heubert, J.P. (2009). High-stakes testing: opportunities and risks for students of color, English-language learners, and students with disabilities. Available: . Help your child improve in test-taking. (1993). Available: . Intervention central. (2011). Available: . Juntunen, C., and Atkinson, D.R. (2001). Counseling across the lifespan: prevention and treatment. USA: Sage Publications. Logsdun, A. (2011). “Are testing acccommodations helpful or harmful?” Testing accommodations— what are testing accommodations? Available: . Marshall, J.M. (2002). Learning with technology: evidence that technology can, and does, support learning. US: San Diego State University. Mendler, A.N. (2000). Motivating students who don’t care: successful techniques for educators. Bloomington, IN: National Educational Service. Motivation 101: what turns kids on to learning? (2004). US: NEA Today. The New York performance standards consortium. (2011). Available: . The purpose of testing accommodations. (2011). Available: . BIBLIOGRAPHY (CONT’D.) Sample test items from the NCES website. (2011). Available: . Sample test items from the WDPI website. (2011). Available: . Study guides and strategies. (2004). Available: . Test access and accommodations guidebook. (2011). Available: . Test taking tips. (2004). Available: . Walker, H.M., & Walker, J. (1991). Coping with noncompliance in the classroom: a positive approach. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. Read More