The Culture of Tibet: Heritage and Communication - Term Paper Example

The Culture Running head: USE OF THE PURNELL MODEL TO EXAMINE CULTURE The Culture of Tibet of Client of School of (appropriatetitle) The Culture 2 The Culture of Tibet The Culture of Tibet: Heritage and Communication Tibetan history is infused with their religious traditions and their political system has been based on a theocracy since the 17th century when the fifth Dalai Lama was elevated by the Mongols as the political and religious authority over the country. Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso, who is often referred to as the Great Fifth Dalai Lama, united Tibet under the influence of the Gelug school of thought on Buddhism, which is called the Yellow Hat sect. This school of thought was founded by a Tibetan religious leader named Tsongkhapa during the 14th century, who also established the first monastery of the Gelug at Ganden, from which the Ganden Tripa is named, who is considered the highest religious authority among these Buddhists. The Dalai Lama also comes from this monastery, but is actually at a lower rank than the Ganden Tripa, but holds the highest political authority of the country. To understand the culture of Tibet, one must come to an understanding of the thought process of being a Tibetan Buddhist. To fully understand Tibetan Buddhism would take a lifetime of study, however a more concise understanding might be found by attempting to understand the concept of dharma. Dharma, as defined by Allen Wallace and Stephen Wilhelm in their book, Tibetan Buddhism from the Ground Up: A Practical Approach for Modern Life, is a word that has not literal English translation, but “refers to the understanding and behavior that lead to the elimination of suffering and its source and The Culture 3 to the experience of a lasting state of happiness and fulfillment” (Wallace, 1993, pp. 1). As the Buddhist seeks to attain a state of higher contentment, detachment from worldly and material ideals must be attained and thought becomes centered on higher spiritual goals. One might find a better comprehension if an understanding is made of the impermanence of all things on this plane is found. In an interview with the current Dalai Lama, Thomas Laird asked him about the importance of the Potala Palace, from which the Dalai Lama was forced to flee in 1959 after the Tibetan uprising against the Chinese. Laird saw the Potala as “one of the most significant symbols of the of Tibet nation”, however when he asked the Dalai Lama, he replied “It’s just a building” after which “he shrugged with a small laugh” (Laird, 2007, pp. 6). Another example of this is the practice of the sand painting of the mandala practiced by Buddhist monks. The ritualistic creation is developed over days, and sometimes weeks, where finely grained colored sand is poured to create a mandala, which is a highly symbolic, geometrically intricate piece of art. After such intricate, painstaking work is accomplished, the sand art is immediately destroyed, the sand all swept to the center and used for other purposes. “This destruction symbolizes the return of all things to their source, mirroring the impermanence of existence” (Recio, 2004, pp 62). The language of Tibet is considered one of the Tibeto-Burman classifications of language and is most similar to Burmese. There are a great number of dialects that can cause difficulty as one region intends to communicate with the other. However, the written language of Tibet, which is based in the ancient India script of Brahmi, does not The Culture 4 vary from region to region. Direct eye contact, as in most Asian cultures, is not considered polite but a challenge, and men greet each other by sticking out their tongues (Neuliep, 2009, pp. 352). In current Tibet, Manchurian Chinese is the official language of Tibet, therefore the Tibetan language is not emphasized in the education system. This is due to the current Chinese occupation of Tibet. Therefore, there is a very low literacy rate in Tibet, which is at about a 25% rate. With such a high level of illiteracy, an even lower percentage of higher education exists (Buckley, 2006, pp. 275). Currently, Tibet is under Chinese rule which has officially worked to destroy the religious foundation of the country and insert Chinese ideals. China is officially atheist, so has therefore has vigorously discouraged Buddhist traditions. When they invaded in 1950, the official intent of the Chinese was to “liberate the Tibetans from feudalism”, and currently, “China has tightened its grip on the region, ruling what is today the largest colony in the world” (Buckley, 2006, pp. 12). The Chinese see this occupation as a great victory, having ’liberated’ the Tibetans, while the Tibetans view it as a great tragedy as they have watched the attempts to decimate their culture and have suffered under the “pillage, rape, torture, dislocation and destructions - a deliberate attempt to obliterate their culture, their religion, and their values”(Buckley, 2006, pp. 12). The Dalai Lama is in exile and the country is burdened with an oppression of its heritage and its communication, affecting education and advancement by the Tibetan people. The Culture 5 List of References Buckley, M. (2006). Tibet. Chalfont St. Peter: Bradt Travel Guides. Laird, T., & Bstan-dzin-rgya-mtsho. (2007). The Story of Tibet : Conversations with the Dalai Lama. New York: Grove Press. Neuliep, J. W. (2009). Intercultural communication: A contextual approach. Los Angeles: Sage. Recio, B., & London, E. (2004). Sacred rituals: Connecting with the spirit through labyrinths, sand paintings, and other traditional art. Gloucester, MA: Fair Winds Press. Wallace, B. A., & Wilhelm, S. (1993). Tibetan Buddhism from the ground up: A practical approach for modern life. Boston, MA: Wisdom Publications. The Culture 6 The Culture of Tibet The Culture of Tibet: Family Roles and Organization, Workforce Issues, and Biocultural Ecology In the Tibetan tradition, women are allowed to have two or more husbands who would usually be brothers, and, although not as common and usually found among the wealthier Tibetans, a man might have two or more wives who would usually be sisters. This practice can still be found, but it is more common to find families created from the marriage of one man to one woman in contemporary Tibet (Maiden, 1997, pp 21). Men are usually considered the head of the household, although women are not disrespected or treated as inferior, but as equal partners in a marriage. Families work in unison to accomplish survival goals. A heart wrenching fact of occupied Tibet is the birth-control polices that have been forced upon the people under Chinese rule. Women are “subjected to the denial of reproductive rights, forced birth control, abortions and sterilizations against their choice.” This is a systematic and purposeful action on the part of the Chinese. “Increasing the number of Chinese settlers in Tibet and decreasing the number of Tibetan inhabitants through birth-control policies is a systematic policy of the communist regime in Beijing”(Bernstorff, 2003, pp. 330). Families live in multi-generational households, with the middle aged couple providing the core of the family. This is usually done from an economic standpoint as this age usually represents the time of life when contribution is at its height and a certain amount of wisdom has been attained. The elderly are respected and usually live in the The Culture 7 households of their children. Because so many of the people of Tibet have gone into exile, the traditional roles within those families have changed drastically. Women did not traditionally work outside of the home, however with settlement occurring outside of the Tibetan lands, the role of provider has been shifted to include wives. In a society that has now been subverted by the occupation of an oppressive force, the way in which education and work are approached has been changed. These changes have had some positive affects on the way in which opportunity has reached women that were not previously available. At this time, according to Bernstorff, women hold about one third of the positions in the Central Tibetan Administration, which is a government in exile which operates out of India and is headed by the Dalia Lama (Bernstorff, 2003, pp 332). There are about 46 settlements in India that are made up of Tibetan refuges. The main source of survival is as agrarian cultures, which was a great change for the many nomadic groups that are included in these refuge settlements. The settlements were done as part of the desire that the Dalai Lama had to maintain as much of the Tibetan culture as was possible by keeping his people together. Their original barter system of trade has been successfully transferred to a competitive economy, capable of sustaining the inhabitants of the communities. Because of the origins within the culture of partnerships within marriages, women and men were able to work together to create successful economic foundations for these settlement groups (Bernstorff, 2003, pp. 190-191). Genetically speaking some of the attributes of the Tibetan ethnicity are unique because of the altitude in which Tibet rests. Tibetans have developed an adaptation to The Culture 8 altitudes that seems to be carried genetically. One example of this is that way in which birth weight is measured against those of Andean culture who developed at a lower altitude. “(T)he birth weight of babies born to Tibetan natives decreases less sharply as the mother’s altitude of residence increases than does the birth weight of babies born to Andean natives”(Houston, 2005, pp. 200). The origins of the Tibetan people are recorded to have come from a migration from Northern China. Tibetans share similar genetic characteristics with Northern Chinese people, which are not similar to Southern Chinese people. Han and Tibetans are from the same genetic origin. The leukocyte antigen of the Han and the Tibetans is the same, while it contrasts sharply with the genetics of the Nepalese and the Indians. However, there is a belief that is propagated that the Han are superior to the Tibetans, which allows for a subjugated class creation within Chinese occupied Tibet (Dikotter, 1997, pp. 94). However, this genetic difference has been disputed because of the wide varieties of genetic markers within the Chinese people. Because of the political ramifications of the Tibetans being under the same ethnic umbrella with the Chinese, the Dalai Lama is not in support of this conclusion and has stated that the Tibetans are distinct from the Chinese and should be accorded political support as an individual race of people. The Culture 9 List of References Bernstorff, D., & Welck, H. v. (2003). Exile as challenge: The Tibetan diaspora. Hyderabad, India: Orient Longman. Dikötter, F. (1997). The construction of racial identities in China and Japan: Historical and contemporary perspectives. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Houston, C. S., Harris, D. E., & Zeman, E. J. (2005). Going higher: Oxygen, man, and mountains. Seattle, WA: Mountaineers Books. Maiden, A. H., & Farwell, E. (1997). The Tibetan art of parenting: From before conception through early childhood. Boston: Wisdom Publications. The Culture 10 The Culture of Tibet The Culture of Tibet: Pregnancy, Nutrition, and High Risk Behaviors The Tibetan culture has an elevated sense of the sacred nature of life. “The Tibetan perspective provides a refreshing and inclusive integration of the physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual aspects of birth”(Maiden, 1997, pp. 9). The entire family participates in bringing a new child into the family, from conception to birth with rich traditions of ritual and prayer. Since Buddhist belief holds to traditions of reincarnation, birth is seen as a sacred part of this continuation of life. Family planning has been chronicled in both medical and spiritual texts in Tibetan literature, however most families allow conception to happen naturally, unless they are under Chinese rule and must adhere to those restrictions. Despite the spirituality that is associated with birth, the actual act of giving birth is considered ‘dirty’ because of the nature of the fluids that come with the birth of a child. There is an feeling that there is an impurity of birth and that this should not be allowed to come into the presence of any person of elevated status, or in the sight of a deity. Pregnancy is considered a paradox of thought, in that it is considered a joyous event, but associated with a dangerous state of being. Pregnant women are not cloistered as they are in Hindu tradition, but they are some limits as to whom and what they should be near. For instance, their proximity to the alters of the home must be carefully limited. As well, it is a view that the child leaves the womb as an aversion to the womb, in need of escape. Traditionally, birth was given from a squatted position and attended to by women who were culturally trained in the aspects of birth, but contemporarily most births in the Indian The Culture 11 settlements and within the Chinese occupied nation are done in medical facilities (Reynolds, 1993, pp. 166-168). Nutrition in traditional Tibet is based on barley, dairy products, and meat products. In the higher altitudes, fish and vegetables are not easily accessed. One of the staples of the food intake of traditional Tibet is a food made of parched flour made of barley that is called tsampa. This food is eaten at most meals and carried as food when traveling. Yogurt is another important food as is meats that are derived from beef and mutton. “Braise, simmer, steam, fry and roast” are representational of the ways in which foods are prepared. Mutton stew is one of the most popular dishes, and when traveling to Tibet, more traditional Chinese Sichuan dishes can be found in the restaurants (Zhang, 2004, pp. 103). Some of the food traditions found in Tibetan culture are based on fasting in order to attain spiritual elevation. As well, the concept of taste is central to the nutritional concept of balanced eating for the Tibetan. The balance of a meal is not only based on the food groups more commonly considered, but also of the balance of the “six tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, pungent, and astringent (Keston, 2001, pp. 84). For the Buddhist, “Alcohol is detrimental to the goal of the enlightened, for it prevents the attainment of mental clarity necessary to gain enlightenment. . .It is said that alcohol destroys shame and the fear of hell”(Blocker, 2003, pp.154). This system of belief about the uses of alcohol are followed by the majority of Tibetans, both under the Chinese in Tibet and in the Indian settlements. In 1926, Tibet passed laws prohibiting the import of tobacco and prohibiting its use. The strict Buddhist principles that are followed The Culture 12 by the majority of Tibetans creates a rather vice-less culture. However, there is some speculation about contemporary drug and alcohol abuse among contemporary Tibetan youths, but the information is subject to interpretation since the Chinese government is in control of most of the information that is allowed out of the country. The Culture 13 List of References Blocker, J. S., Fahey, D. M., & Tyrrell, I. R. (2003). Alcohol and temperance in modern history: An international encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO. Kesten, D., & Hughes, G. A. (2001). The healing secrets of food: A practical guide for nourishing body, mind, and soul. Novato, Calif: New World Library. Reynolds, D. K. (1993). Plunging through the clouds: Constructive living currents. Albany: State University of New York Press. Zhang, X. (2004). Chinas Tibet. Beijing: China Intercontinental Press. The Culture 14 The Culture of Tibet The Culture of Tibet: Death Rituals and Spirituality The Buddhist tradition is central to the culture of the Tibetans, both in and out of exile. However, because of the Chinese belief in atheism, it is assumed that many of the continuing Buddhist principles that are still practiced are a matter of practice rather than actual belief. Much is done for the show of it rather than the belief. Whether this concept is a Western belief, a Chinese propaganda, or an actual situational culture for the Tibetans within Tibet, is a matter of debate between scholars and researchers. Some information can be found to support each of these theories. However, the practice of Buddhist principles and rituals are founded deeply in the religion of those in exile in India. While the Dalai Lama is not officially recognized as a political leader by any nation, he is still considered the leader of the Tibetan people and his religious position is unquestionable. It is the Dalai Lama’s goal to preserve the culture and traditions of his people, even in exile, and promotes a society that is deeply spiritual and steeped in the Buddhism that has been the foundation of their culture. Tibetans believe in reincarnation. They believe that there is a period of forty-nine days before the experience of the next rebirth will begin after death has occurred. If certain rituals are not performed, there are fears that the soul will re-enter the body and run around in wild, uncontrolled mania. It is because of this fear that doorways are low in Tibetan homes, to prevent the escape of such a ‘zombie’. Because of the particular environment of the mountainous Tibet, funeral rites vary depending on the status of the individuals. Higher status individuals might be cremated, where poor people could be The Culture 15 thrown into a water body. The most common practice associated with corpse disposal is the practice of cutting up the body and then grinding the bones in with grain and the remains left on a hill for the vultures to dispose of the individual. Burial was done in the case of infants and those who carried contagious disease. The Chinese have promoted the idea that human sacrifice was part of the Tibetan rituals, but this is not supported by scholarly research and the remains used to promote this concept are undoubtedly due to the bones left from the rituals surrounding the dismemberment and feast provided to the vultures after death (Grunfield, 1996, pp. 28-29). The reverence for life extends beyond the physical body for Tibetan Buddhists. Rituals that are performed are done with the attitude that life will continue beyond death and that each person has the opportunity to improve their spiritual enlightenment and continue to a higher state of awareness. Life is designed to enhance this continuation, and the respect that is shown the body is a reflection of the respect that is shown to the life. One of the aspects of the Dalai Lama is that he is the continuation of the same being, reincarnated and found after each birth to be elevated to his position. Prayer is central to the life of the Tibetan Buddhist practices. One of the types of prayer that is unique to Tibet is the use of prayer flags. It is possible that the use of the flags predated Buddhism being infused into Tibet and is a holdover from previous cultures. The flags are used, not to send up works beseeching gods to act, but rather messages of peace and blessings on the wind to people across the earth. The messages are for human benefit, rather than for godly attention. The use of the prayer wheel is another form of prayer in Tibetan Buddhist The Culture 16 tradition. The tradition and ritual of the prayer wheel can provide for the one practicing it many levels of achievement on his or her way to enlightenment. The prayers are usually selfless, giving over the wish that peace and happiness will be found by others. In the traditions of the search for dharma, one hopes during these prayers to free sentient beings from those things that burden them in a way that prevents happiness and contentment (Ladner, 2000, pp. x) . One of the strongest aspects of the Buddhist life is the attainment of a detachment to worldly material things. This detachment allows for the acceptance of whatever is brought to the life of the practicing individual. At the beginning of these modules, the idea that the Potala Palace is ’just a building’ is indicative of the wish to attain this detachment and create a sense that nothing in life is permanent and therefore must not hold much in the way of importance. The concept of reincarnation is a support of this concept. Death is just a transitional phase that will lead to the next life, therefore the end of this life is not a tragedy, but the next opportunity. However, this does not create an attitude that suggests that life is not important. In fact, it is quite the opposite. Life is sacred and to be preserved and honored. The body is to be treated well as the vessel of the soul, and this means that the body should be treated with moderation and conservative ideals in nutrition and should be exercised to enhance its usefulness. These beliefs do not decrease the desire for longevity, because this allows for a deeper exploration in each life for the aspect of seeking enlightenment. The Culture 17 List of References Grunfeld, A. T. (1996). The making of modern Tibet. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. Ladner, L., & Thubten Zopa. (2000). The wheel of great compassion: The practice of the prayer wheel in Tibetan Buddhism. Boston, MA: Wisdom Publications. The Culture 18 The Culture of Tibet The Culture of Tibet: Health Care Healthcare in Tibet is not considered one of its better aspects under the Chinese occupation and colonization. Other than the forced procedures in regards to reproduction, medical availability is not adequate under contemporary standards in Tibet. Staffing is difficult because there are few people available with the proper qualifications to fulfill the positions. This is undoubtedly due to the low literacy rate and the lack of educational opportunities for those who do not have a fluency in Mandarin Chinese. Healthcare is suppose to be free, however it is common practice for practitioners to take payment despite the nature of a free healthcare system. As a result, tuberculosis, pneumonia and diarrhea is a common cause of death for children, while other diseases just as commonly curable are causes for death in adults (Subramanya, 2004, pp. 234). According to Miriam Cameron in her discussion with a Tibetan health care provider, in her book, Karma and happiness: A Tibetan odyssey in ethics, spirituality, and healing, the condition of the hospitals is not conducive to medical practices. Basic resources are not always available. Food, electricity, sanitary conditions, hot and cold running water, and other needs are not always met creating a deficit in quality healthcare. There is not much in the way of bioethics that isn’t developed through Western healthcare professionals and a there is a real need for education of Tibetans in the field of bioethics so that they can improve the system from within. However, Cameron cautioned the doctor she was speaking with because “bioethics can also be dangerous, because it encourages independent thinking. Bioethics provides a language for putting conflict into words and it promotes doing the right thing, which may be different than what the government demands (Cameron, 2001, pp. 176). One of the missing factors of care in Tibet, according to Cameron, is a noticeable absence of nursing homes. This, however, is due to the belief by Tibetans that they are responsible for the well-being of their elders who they hold in high regard. It is not necessary for homes for the elderly to exist because they are housed within the family home until their time of passing. Their care is the responsibility of the family, and as such it is not even a consideration to send them elsewhere for care. An interesting attitude in Tibetan Buddhist tradition is over the issue of abortion. According to Tibetan medical texts, it is a sin to perform an abortion, however there are reasons given for it to be permissible. “In Tibetan medical texts, the Buddha says if you destroy a human you are a sinner, with two exceptions: When a baby will be born out of wedlock, a woman can have an abortion, the woman is sick and weak , and she can’t support her kids. Then the Buddha permits abortion. Abortion is still a sin, but a minor sin.”(Cameron, 2001, pp. 174). However, the heartbreak of current Chinese policy of one child per household creates more abortions and sometimes late in the term when pregnancy is not recognized or attended to early enough. Much of Tibetan healthcare is performed at home by the use of homeopathic curatives that have been used over many generations. There are medical texts that are ancient and the way in which cure is approached is largely derived from hundreds years of tradition. Much of this is continued because of the inadequacies within the public healthcare system. The Culture 20 List of References Cameron, M. (2001). Karma and happiness: A Tibetan odyssey in ethics, spirituality, and healing. Minneapolis: Fairview Press. Subramanya, N. (2004). Human rights and refugees. New Delhi: A.P.H. Pub. Corp. The Culture 21 List of References Bernstorff, D., & Welck, H. v. (2003). Exile as challenge: The Tibetan diaspora. Hyderabad, India: Orient Longman. Blocker, J. S., Fahey, D. M., & Tyrrell, I. R. (2003). Alcohol and temperance in modern history: An international encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO. Buckley, M. (2006). Tibet. Chalfont St. Peter: Bradt Travel Guides. Cameron, M. (2001). Karma and happiness: A Tibetan odyssey in ethics, spirituality, and healing. Minneapolis: Fairview Press. Dikötter, F. (1997). The construction of racial identities in China and Japan: Historical and contemporary perspectives. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Grunfeld, A. T. (1996). The making of modern Tibet. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. Houston, C. S., Harris, D. E., & Zeman, E. J. (2005). Going higher: Oxygen, man, and mountains. Seattle, WA: Mountaineers Books. Kesten, D., & Hughes, G. A. (2001). The healing secrets of food: A practical guide for nourishing body, mind, and soul. Novato, Calif: New World Library. Ladner, L., & Thubten Zopa. (2000). The wheel of great compassion: The practice of the prayer wheel in Tibetan Buddhism. Boston, MA: Wisdom Publications. Laird, T., & Bstan-dzin-rgya-mtsho. (2007). The Story of Tibet : Conversations with the Dalai Lama. New York: Grove Press. Maiden, A. H., & Farwell, E. (1997). The Tibetan art of parenting: From before conception through early childhood. Boston: Wisdom Publications. Neuliep, J. W. (2009). Intercultural communication: A contextual approach. Los Angeles: Sage. Recio, B., & London, E. (2004). Sacred rituals: Connecting with the spirit through labyrinths, sand paintings, and other traditional art. Gloucester, MA: Fair Winds Press. Reynolds, D. K. (1993). Plunging through the clouds: Constructive living currents. Albany: State University of New York Press. Subramanya, N. (2004). Human rights and refugees. New Delhi: A.P.H. Pub. Corp. Wallace, B. A., & Wilhelm, S. (1993). Tibetan Buddhism from the ground up: A practical approach for modern life. Boston, MA: Wisdom Publications. Zhang, X. (2004). Chinas Tibet. Beijing: China Intercontinental Press. Read More