Global Warming and Environmental Degradation - Essay Example

Effect of Sustainability on Development: PART - I Critical evaluation of the effect of sustainability on development This part of the discussion will try to focus on major questions on sustainability such as: 1. Is there any evidence to show purchasers, occupiers or developers are influenced by energy or other sustainability factors 2. What legislative or good practice changes have been implemented in the last few years and what are any proposed for the future 3. How is the market reacting to sustainability changes Sustainable development focuses on the preservation of environment and meeting human needs at the same time. Sustainable development is considered as development that would not only meet the demands of the present but also sustain environmental resources so that future generations could also meet their needs. The proper utilization of natural systems and the social challenges of humanity highlight sustainability as an economy in equilibrium with basic ecological systems. There could be an emphasis on environmental, economic or socio-political sustainability and the need to have a sustainable ecological and natural system is important in any developmental scenario. Sustainability is important and especially with a focus on global warming and environmental degradation, property developers and contractors have emphasized on construction and building projects that would be beneficial to the environment. Sustainability highlights these benefits and purchasers, developers and occupiers or builders and even buyers want a sustainable environment so that they could be part of a healthy and beneficial environment. Saving energy and utilizing renewable energy are some of the elements of sustainability as sustainability is about renewal rather than depletion and using natural energy resources in a manner that would environmentally advantageous for the future. A study on environmental energy resources and sustainable developments examined the extent to which energy efficiency is incorporated in refurbishment and capital expenditure of office buildings and also suggested a cost benefit analysis. The three aspects of construction technology, building refurbishment and property management are integrated along with sustainability goals. The levels of capital expenditure vary to ensure that buildings are more energy efficient. The emphasis has been on cost of implementation and with increased energy efficiency there may even be a demand for high rents. Studies have suggested that office building construction phases contribute significantly to global warming although during the entire lifecycle of a building, CO2 omissions are a major problem. Innovative approaches and energy related changes and efficiency considerations are more applicable in case of new buildings as with various building designs and constructions techniques, new environmental considerations for construction have also evolved. All this caters to the idea of sustainability although the number of new buildings constructed each year is small in proportion to the buildings which already exist. However capital expenditure on a building enhances the sustainability factor proving that sustainability and energy considerations comes with a price although have long term environmental benefits. The increased importance given to sustainability and energy efficiency have affected decision making by developers and also have started determining market price and it is essential that we understand the link between the environment and built structure and environments and try to harmonize the two. The moot point remains that purchasers and developers are affected and influenced by sustainability factors and energy efficiency considerations is not just a buzz phrase in the construction business but also suggests acceptability of projects and developers by buyers who tend to appreciate building and construction projects that have sustainability as a basis of property development. The foundations of sustainability are thus essential to property development and it is almost required that developers and occupiers are equally aware of environmental concerns and focus on sustainability as an essential element of development. A number of rules, regulations and legislative factors have increased implementation of sustainability criteria as essential for good practise in development and construction projects. The property and construction markets as also buyers' markets have been significantly affected by sustainability issues as development with sustainability is now more acceptable than development without considerations of ecological or sustainability factors. In a study by Demetrios and Ruckfa (2008), the performance of sustainable buildings has been assessed and the authors compared similar green buildings with conventional buildings to test whether environmentally sustainable buildings are better than regular buildings. 10 sustainable buildings were compared with 10 conventional buildings and the objective data used for the study included building costs, energy and water consumption, recycling systems and pollution conditions, occupant comfort levels, and proximity to public transportation. Criteria for sustainability or sustainable performance of a building include 39 attributes and certification components although it has been found that in case of nearly 50% of these attributes there is no difference between sustainable and conventional buildings. The study by Demetrios and Ruckfa has suggested that even if buildings are labelled as sustainable, use of design and construction plans don't guarantee sustainability and periodic performance evaluation is still necessary for sustainable buildings. It is also essential to know some of the preconstruction practices that emphasize on the criteria of sustainable projects. For integration of sustainable features in any construction project, sustainability aspects in a cost estimating process should be considered and the principles of sustainable development as laid out by the government will have to be followed. Social housing projects now have concepts of Eco homes and a high rating is necessary to obtain government approval ratings and funding for the project. In social housing projects sustainability is the core of procurement practice and the evaluation practices during preconstruction phase determines in many cases the sustainability features that are to be followed during the building phases. In one relevant study, data on sustainability factors from housing associations and architectural organizations suggested that perceived importance of ecological buildings tended to influence cost factors and it has been considered essential to develop a model that would link project price forecasting and sustainability of social housing projects (Essa and Fortune, 2008). Some of the sustainability factors have been linked to keywords such as energy, pollution, water, health, environment, ecology and land use. Along with social and economic benefits, the most central aspect of sustainability would be environmental benefits and for the planning of sustainable housing projects these environmental issues will have to be considered as of primary importance. Of course all the above studies cited do prove that sustainability factors are very important in construction projects and the government and as also property developers are keen to promote the concept of EcoHomes and ecological balance along with developmental plans. The UK government has structured agenda and legislative reforms for sustainable development. The White Paper - 'Our Energy Future - Creating a Low Carbon Economy' as put forward by the UK government sets out a strategy for delivering sustainable and affordable energy supplies. The Strategy puts a reduction in carbon emissions by 2050. The aims are to: 1. Reduce greenhouse gas emissions and carbon dioxide emissions 2. Increase the proportion of electricity produced from renewable energy supplies 3. Emphasize on sustainable development in trade agreements, 4. Promote corporate responsibility in all areas of business activity 5. Promote sustainable consumption and production, including stress on eco design and eco residences. PART - II Report on a Development Project This discussion is a report on a development project. Working for a Developer, this report aims at providing a briefing to the manager on the possible Planning Gain contributions for a Residential Development in Edinburgh. The development is for 54 housing units and is within 300m of the Edinburgh Tram Scheme in the area of the Leith Dock Planning Framework. Analysis of similar transactions indicates a land value of 1,080,000 subject to planning. Initial discussion with the Planners has indicated a Section 75 contribution list of: Tram 100,000 from matrix, Education 5,000 per unit (3 Primaries and 1 Secondary School costing 75 million to be funded by 15,000 dwellings), Public Realm 30,000 for footpath improvements and bus stop information and Affordable Housing - 25% of units to be affordable. The briefing is provided because of the proportion of developer contributions to the land value. The briefing report firstly identifies the appropriate planning legislation and policy in particular Circular 12/1996 and Edinburgh's planning policy on Affordable Housing, Tram contributions and other Section 75 contributions. With the legal and policy background established, the prospect of negotiating or challenging the contributions could be presented for the development. Report: Policy Framework: According to the policy summary of the government that deals with Edinburgh's planning of building, the framework has been given as follows: The West Edinburgh Planning Framework: Sets out a long term strategic vision for West Edinburgh as an area considered to be nationally important in terms of economic development, global connectivity, transport and the environment. Updates and clarifies the land requirements of the airport and the proposed routes of committed surface access improvements. Forms a basis for future investment in the area. Provides a strategy for relocation of the Royal Highland Centre; Enables the provision of a new business location to accommodate head quarters support functions for international business, making the best use of the accessibility of the area. (Edinburgh Planning Framework, 2008/2009) The Circular 12/1996 sets out Government policy towards the use of agreements made under the Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1972. This circular restricts or regulates the development or use of land and the circular is referred as a planning agreement. The Government of Scotland emphasizes on the importance of planning agreements that is required in the development control process and in making a proposal acceptable in land use planning terms. Planning authorities looks for a planning purpose that should encompass any purpose related to the development of land. The focus is thus on development and in drawing up the agenda for development, it is necessary to keep in mind the constraints related to the planning, design and environmental considerations and the developer has to consider all options before entering into a planning agreement. According to the City of Edinburgh Council "Affordable housing is broadly is housing that is available for rent or sale to meet locally the identified needs of people who cannot afford to buy or rent housing generally available on the open market".(Edinburgh Council, 2007/2009) Section 75 of the 1997 Act could be applied to relevant planning authorities and a section 75 agreement includes provisions for developer contributions on the local government area of the planning authority. According to any section 75 agreement, financial provisions relating to authorised works may include developer contributions obtained by relevant planning and developer contributions may be required anytime during the contract. The Proposed Development: The development is for 54 housing units and within 300m of the Edinburgh Tram Scheme in the area of the Leith Dock Planning Framework. The land value is estimated at 1,080,000 subject to planning. A Section 75 developer contribution list has been drawn: Tram 100,000 from matrix, Education 5,000 per unit (3 Primaries and 1 Secondary School costing 75 million to be funded by 15,000 dwellings), Public Realm 30,000 for footpath improvements and bus stop information and Affordable Housing - 25% of units to be affordable. It is expected that the Edinburgh City Council will seek to 'maximize the potential for developer contributions towards the cost of public transport infrastructure and service support' (City of Edinburgh Council/ City Development Planning 2004/2009). This would indicate that the maximum amount of developer contributions would be sought by the Council for this project. Developer Contributions According to the Edinburgh City Council Planning Policy and Framework - "All developments should make an appropriate contribution towards the construction of the tram system and associated public realm, where the tram is considered to have the potential to address the transport impacts". (City of Edinburgh Council/ Development Planning, 2004/2009) In this particular proposed development, the tram networks is supposed to have a considerable impact on the local transport system and so the developer contributions are expected to be substantial at 100,000. However as stated in Circular 12/1996 - "such contributions can be sought only when they are absolutely necessary in order for the development to proceed and where the contribution concerned is related in scale and kind to the proposed development" (City of Edinburgh Council/ Development Planning, 2004/2009). The developer contribution thus has to be related to the development and the tram networks for which the contribution is made will have to be an absolutely essential means of transport in the region. In this case however suggesting alternative means of transport and showing that the tram networks may not be absolutely necessary as part of the development could aid in negotiating developer contributions for the tram systems in Edinburgh. The land value of the development is estimated at 1,080,000 subject to planning. The City Council has emphasized on a 'sustainable development of cities' that encourages use of land for housing, employment and services so that there is proximity between residential neighbourhoods and schools, services or employment locations. According to the Council's legislative requirements, although developer contributions have the potential to fund major city schemes, there may be irregular development values and only when land values are high, developer contributions could support a range of infrastructural changes (Scottish Government Publications, 2006/2009). This particular development being located within high land value area, developer contributions could be expected yet highlighting the fact that the developer plans to provide 25% affordable housing at a cost lower than the market price, developer contributions on land value could also be substantially reduced. Using approximate values for developer contributions to different sections, a pie-chart could be drawn to suggest that transport, housing and land contributions could be among the highest developer contributions and can be substantially reduced if the legislative procedures are clearly understood. However the diagram could only be approximate rather than accurate as developer contributions for the final housing scheme through affordable housing provisions could only be calculated after the completion of the project. The final pie chart as given below is projected as the ideal rather than the developer contributions as expected by the council. For education and school contributions, the Council expects full contribution from developer for primary and secondary school establishment within the development and each unit of the development is expected to contribute 5,000. Final Implications DEVELOPER CONTRIBUTIONS Source Date Summary Response Actions Edinburgh Development and Homes 2009 School Commissioning Cost and Developer Contributions are given as 5000 pounds per unit for primary and secondary sections Developer contributions of full costs are considered too high and negotiable Proposed actions could require negotiations to reduce the education developer contributions significantly by even changing the plan Edinburgh Development and Homes 2009 Tram and Transport Developer Contribution costs expected by the city Council, is at 100000 pounds. Developer contributions of tram costs could be reduced by suggesting the other means of transport Proposed actions could require negotiations to reduce the tram developer contributions significantly Edinburgh Development and Homes 2009 Public Realm and footpath Contributions of 30000 pounds Developer contributions of footpath contributions and public realm contributions are considered appropriate Proposed actions are adhering to this developer contribution agreement - agreed contribution Edinburgh Development and Homes 2009 Affordable housing needs given to the developer is at 25% Developer contributions of affordable housing would indicate significant reduction of profits Considering affordable housing scheme goals, developer could sell for lower rates but not too low for market price - negotiations with city council will again be possible if Section 75 is evoked. A chart for an ideal develop contribution plan in terms of proportion could be given here: Conclusion: In conclusion, extensive negotiations with the city Council could be necessary considering the extensive developer contributions expected from the Council and if Section 75 and Circular 12/1996 legislative regulations are referred, negotiations would be possible and developer contributions could be substantially reduced considering factors of sustainability, costs and requirements in the region. Bibliography 1. Bentivegna V.;Curwell S.;Deakin M.;Lombardi P.;Mitchell G.;Nijkamp P. (2002) A vision and methodology for integrated sustainable urban development: BEQUEST.Building Research and Information, Volume 30,Number 2, 1 March , pp. 83-94(12) 2. Cerin P.;Karlson L. (2002) Business incentives for sustainability: a property rights approach. Ecological Economics, Volume 40,Number 1, pp. 13-22(10) 3. 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