History and Role of Human Genome - Essay Example

Human Genome Introduction The history of biology underwent an alteration a decade ago based on the bold decision to launch a program embedded in research. It characterized a complete genetic set of instructions that regards human beings. The ideology to study the genome captured the imagination of the public due to the manner in which America addressed cancer and AIDS as opposed to its expeditions. Global scientists had an intent of mapping the human genetic terrain with an idea that it could lead them to unimaginable insights and finally result in common good. The scientists thought that a study of human genome could lead them to gain an understanding of massive genetic contributions to diseases encountered by humans. Additionally, there could be an establishment of rational strategies to minimize and prevent disease phenotypes. The endeavor to instigate the program was chancy and awesome given that human genome was vastly bigger as compared to any other genetic endowment. During this period, the technology had not developed to handle this powerful research. The scientists involved yearned to use the techniques that were in place to read the human genetic constitution and challenge their identities. Hence, all research performed created a link to the gene, indicating that genes have fundamental information concerned with how human bodies accomplish their duties from conception to death. Actually, in between life, human bodies struggle to survive amid challenging environs. However, at the behest of genes, humans fare better. Thus, it is paramount to study the human genome and realize its fundamental importance in the survival of humans. History of human genome In 1902, Archibald Garrod never hesitated to point out what the term gene meant. Garrod’s observation on the trend of disease among patients in Great Ormond and St. Bartholomew’s Hospital in London, he concluded that the problem ran in the families (Ridley 38). Further observations revealed that the diseases could reappear among generations of a family with carriers not displaying any sign of bearing such a problem. However, the disease re-emerged in individuals with double inheritance. He also noticed that the patients produced urine and earwax that turned black on exposure to the air. He then concluded that a protein-homogentisate- was lacking that could assist to break down this substance. Cognizant of this case study, Garrod noted that afflicted individuals produced defective enzymes that could not catalyze the breakdown of the homogentisate protein. However, the carriers had no problem since the genes from either parent could compensate the situation (Ridley 38). Garrod finally reached a consensus that there exist inborn errors related to metabolism, where the genes should produce chemical catalysts. In his explanation, Garrod elucidated that the inborn errors related to metabolism arise from the failure of metabolic sequences resulting from malfunctioning of the enzymes. Later on, Mendel conducted a series of experiments to hybridize different varieties of peas, which he realized that they followed a certain sequence. Afterward, he turned to fuschias and maize where he bred them and discovered new ideas about heredity. He concluded that characteristics never mix and that there was something indivisible, hard, particulate, and quantum concerning inheritance. He noted that there is no mixing of fluids, blending of blood; instead, a temporary joining occur (Ridley 39). Following Mendel’s explanations, Darwin asserted that propagation via true fertilization turns out to be a mixture of two distinct items as opposed to true fusion. After a series of research, the scientists eventually discovered that using a fungus, Aspergillus they could create a mutant with a purple pigment in phenylalanine having a defective fashion of homogentisate. The case was in line with what Garrod had foreseen. When breaking the fungal genome, scientists found that changing a single letter could bring about tremendous changes and the genome cannot perform its job (Ridley 39). Similarities of Human Genome with Chimpanzees According to research done by Tjio and Laven, human beings possess twenty-three chromosomes (Ridley 23). The number is less by one when compared to chromosomes contained in the bodies of chimpanzees and other animals like rats. Initially, Theophilus Painter held that humans had twenty-four chromosomes until 1955. Tjio and Laven found that only humans had twenty-three pairs of chromosomes while other animals contain twenty-four pairs (Ridley 24). They held that chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans had twenty-four pairs of chromosomes. Further, the researchers continued to hold viewpoints that human beings miss a pair of the ape chromosomes. Rather, they have fused into the human body. To support their view, they claim that chromosome number two is the second longest as compared to all other human chromosomes (Ridley 24). Hence, they allude that it formed due to merging of two medium-sized chromosomes from an ape. However, Pope John Paul the second disputed this claim arguing that there is an ontological discontinuity between the modern human beings and ancestral apes. He claimed that the human species was not a pinnacle of evolution; hence, there is nothing like evolutionary progress. Similarly, Ridley notes that human beings are unique and complex. However, he disputes the claim saying that complexity does not mean everything, and should not be the sole goal of evolution (Ridley 25). In perspective, the author asserts that human beings exist due to an ecological success and form the most abundant animals on the planet. Contrary, there had been few mountain gorillas long before the humans started killing them and dismantling their habitats. Moreover, human beings have a unique and remarkable capability of colonizing almost all habitats including dry or wet, cold or hot, marine or desert, and high or low. In context, the barn owls, ospreys, and roseate terns are also abundant species of animals that live in almost all continents except Antarctica. In 1950, J. Z. Young, a great atomist wrote that it was not certain to discern whether human beings have a common ancestor with the apes. They originated from a different group of primates alienated from the apes a couple of millions of years ago (Ridley 25). Other scientists held that orangutans might be the closest cousin to the humans while others suggest that the chimpanzees and gorillas separated from the human line not long ago, approximately not more than ten million years. Fundamentally, there are more differences between the chimp and the gorilla than between the human being and the chimp (Ridley26). For instance, separating a hybrid of chimp and human DNA completes at high temperatures than the hybrid between the gorilla and the chimp or human and gorilla. Some stretches of human and chimp DNA do not agree when tracing back at the exact time they separated. For example, mitochondria suggest more recent dates than the other stretches. Nevertheless, the differences that exist between the human and chimp chromosomes are tiny and few. For instance, in thirteen chromosomes, there are no visible differences contained in the chimps and humans. Hence, the chimps are at 98% agreement with the genome of the human beings (Ridley 27). The case implies that humans are more of chimps than gorillas. Differences between human genome and the chimps Regardless of the mechanism pursued, human ancestors were an isolated and small band while the chimpanzees dominated the race. The situation is in context due to the tight bottlenecks that the human genome went through. Hence, there exists much random variability in the genome of humans than in the genome of the chimps (Ridley 30). It is eminent that people are an isolated lot since they do not breed with any other animal in the universe. The humans have evolved, and their shape is becoming upright due to the form of their skeleton that allows for a bipedal mode of walking and an upright posture. The posture suits to a long distance of walking in even terrain while chimps have a knuckle walking suited to a rough terrain over short distances. The skin of the humans is less hairy; and the apes have a hairy body, which sweats when exposed to heat. Thus, these substantial differences point out that the human ancestors never lived in the thick and cloudy-shaded forests but rather walked in the open under a hot equatorial sun. Contextually, the evidence held by science has vague clues about the growth and form generated by the genes. However, there is no doubt that genes take responsibility for the changes in form and growth evidenced by humans (Ridley 30). It is clear that differences noted between the humans and the chimps are genetic, and there is nothing to debate. On the other hand, if a chimp grows among the human beings, its behavior will be full of confusion just as a human being can grow amid the chimps. The situation shows that there is an interaction between the humans and the chimps, and this trace back to the ancestral time where there was no interaction. If at all it was, then it is probable to rear a chimp amid humans. Hence, the recipe for behavior and anatomy is a gene conception. Human genome and disease The book Genome identifies clearly that most of the written works link genes to a primary cause of illness. Ridley notes that there is labeling of genes by the diseases they cause. They have names from mental illness genes, genes for kidney cancer, autism-serotonin transporter gene, and Alzheimer gene (Ridley 54). It is embarrassing to label the genes by the disease they cause since the organs never receive labels according to their diseases. Then organs could remain understood as livers that cause cirrhosis, brains that lead to strokes, and hearts that give rise to heart attacks, a situation that is absurd. Speculations need to stop, and the people know that in case of a gene mutation, this is when a disease sets in (Ridley 54). Absence of genes amongst individuals is causative of particular diseases. For example, absence of Wolf-Hirschhorn gene results into Wolf-Hirschhorn Syndrome. In this context, the sufferers possess a mutation and not a gene. The syndrome is rare and serious; the Wolf-Hirschhorn gene is vital, and when it misses, the victims die young. Documentation about the gene finds that when the gene lacks entirely, the Wolf-Hirschhorn Syndrome sets in while mutations cause Huntington’s chorea. Henceforth, the destiny, sanity, and the life of a person hang by the repetition of the CAG strand contained in the Wolf-Hirschhorn gene (Ridley 55). The repeats made by this gene is a severe case, in that, most of the people have fifteen repeats. However, if the repetitions reach thirty-nine, the victim will lose balance in mid-life, be incapable of taking care of oneself, and die prematurely. The situation starts with a deterioration of the intellectual capacities, jerking limbs, depressions, followed by occasional delusions and hallucinations. The disease has no cure, and there is no appeal; therefore, the victim dies with time (Ridley 56). Conversely, when the repetitions are fewer than thirty-five, the people tend to be normal. Human genome and the environment Medics have indicated that eczema, asthma, anaphylaxis, and allergy are part of a particular syndrome, caused by the body’s mast cells (Ridley 65). The mast cell remains triggered by immunoglobulin-E molecules. One person out of ten has an allergy ranging from mild to fatal and sudden collapse, caused by either peanut or a bee sting. Pertinent to this situation, whichever factor invokes the case of asthma should explain the outbreak of atopy. For instance, children who have serious allergies to peanuts, whose allergies fade as they grow, are less likely to contract asthma (Ridley 66). Critics are attributing asthma toward the environmental pollution. Observations on children suffering from asthma show that pollution is the major cause of this disease. According to Armand Trousseau, two twin brothers suffered from asthma while living in Marseilles, but when they migrated to Toulon, their condition disappeared. Therefore, indicating that the environment influenced the condition of their disease and that pollution in the former place of residence contributed to the disease. It is prudent to note that the synthetic chemicals cause dangerous attacks of the asthmatic condition. Such chemicals include trimellitic anhydride, isocyanates, and phthalic anhydride. There are vast instances of resistance to drugs meant for asthma due to modifications in the human genome (Ridley 66). Seemingly, the patients having letter G at both positions of chromosome five at the forty-sixth placeholder find that their drugs meant for asthma are ineffective as compared to those with letter A in the same situation. Human genome and intelligence Matt Ridley confirms that the gene for intelligence attaches itself to chromosome number six (Ridley 76). Based on the experience carried out on American teenage children, the fourteen-years-old proved that their IQ was above average, assumedly the best. Plomin’s team that conducted the study concluded that these children might have adopted the best versions of genes from their parents, genes that influence their intelligence (Ridley 77). Moreover, the team took samples of blood from these bright children and started to determine the DNA on chromosome six. In concluding upon this research, they found that some bit of DNA that is not eminent in the other people thrived on the long arm of chromosome six. The team found the gene lying in the middle of gene IGF2R. To further this school of thought, it is pertinent to realize that intelligence can never work in a vacuum. Hence, the people need stimulation from the environment to uplift their intelligence. Similarly, a significant proportion of intelligence is attributable to nurture since it embeds into the past that is firm and immutable. For instance, a child receives an influence from the actions of a mother before its birth (Ridley 78). Hence, about half the IQ of the child is inborn and less than one-fifth receives contribution from the environment. Human genome and Eugenics It is evident that children born having an extra chromosome on either 13 or 18 never survive (Ridley 286). Those born with an extra chromosome on number 21 are healthy and tend to accomplish their survival. However, the normal being in the surviving children has complications of the Down syndrome (Ridley 287). Currently, it is essential to determine whether the embryo has an extra chromosome after which the mother receives coercion into an abortion. The doctors reveal impossibility in bringing up a child with Down syndrome while justifying abortion. In cases where medical professionals perpetrate death in the name of perfection, the situation results into eugenics (Ridley 288). In this case, the humans strive to pick a suitable mate for breeding leaving alone those that have defects. In other words, the states need to give directions about who to breed to bring about pure generations (Ridley 288). In so doing, the people locked out in the breeding system receive discrimination and sometimes die to reduce the burden created onto the country. When the government does this, it denies the citizenry with defects a chance to survive in the name of preserving purity of the generations. Eugenics comes in many forms encompassing restriction on immigrations, sterilization, and even castration. Eugenic acts do not allow the people to pass on their genome to the next generations, thence, curtailing the right to life. Human genome and personality Notably, tension that exists between features of human race and the particular characteristics of individuals constitute a genome (Ridley 161). To some extent, the genome contributes to the things that people share and experience. For example, the individuals experience stress and suffer from immune-suppressive effects. The situation happens because of the switching of genes on and off by the environment. These differences indicate the various personalities embodied by people (Ridley 162). For instance, some persons are quiet while others are loquacious. Achieving this state means more than character, it is an innate and individual element embedded in character. Consequently, there are chemicals in the mind that influence personality and are on chromosome eleven’s short arm having a gene called D4DR. The D4DR is a recipe for a dopamine receptor (Ridley 162). The receptor allows the brain to work electrically to stimulate the much-needed personality trait. Human genome and instinct It is at chromosome number seven that lies a gene that has an obligation to equip humans with an instinct, lying at the heart of all the cultures (Ridley 91). It is clear that all the people have the ability to learn from their culture, creativity, and conscious creatures. Therefore, everything that the people engage in is by free will, brainwashing, and giant brains. The children study the way the human talk, thus, there are underlying similarities that bore universal human grammar (Ridley 92). The grammar cannot be innate. However, it is learned through observation of the persons speaking. Chomsky’s realized that there is a familiar way that the people speak and it could not receive influence from the parents. Evidently, the human genome plays a significant role in the context of human instinct (Ridley 93). Conclusion As observed, the human genomes play a primary role in the making of an individual. It is clear that a human genome has come a long way from the time of Garrod who determined that the genes affect the body of humans in a significant way. Additionally, it is important to note that Chimps have varied differences that are outstanding from the human race. Despite the little similarities, humans differ greatly from the Chimps and the gorillas. When the genome mutates, there is a possibility of disease. Nevertheless, genomes determine personality, instinct and receive influence from the environment. Therefore, it is vital to study the human genome to realize its effects on the human race. Work Cited Ridley, Matt. Genome: the autobiography of a species in 23 chapters. New York: HarperCollins, 1999. Print. Read More