Biography of John C. Calhoun - Essay Example

Born in Abbeville, on March 18, 1782, on the frontier of South Carolina, the fourth child, third son of Scots-Irish immigrant Patrick Calhoun and hissecond wife Martha Caldwell, John C. Calhoun (JCC) grew up to be the Vice Presidents of the United States between 1825 and 1832. This Scotch-Irish family had entered the colonies in Pennsylvania and migrated to the Southern back country in the middle of the century (Hofstadter, n.d.). His father, Patrick was a landowner, a farmer, a legislator, an anti-Federalist political activist, and a slave owner (Ulbrich, 1999). He acquired over thirty slaves in an area where slaves were rare, was a member of the state legislature, and opposed the federal Constitution. John Calhoun, an American statesman and political philosopher, served in the federal government, successively as congressman, secretary of war, vice president, senator, secretary of state, and again as senator (Richey, n.d.). Calhoun was loyal to his country and his state and fought against slavery. To understand the virtues and the qualities of Calhoun it is essential to understand his educational background, the environment in which he grew up and the teachings that shaped him. Early childhood and education His early childhood was in an atmosphere of controversy and social change. Small farmers like his father challenging the political dominance of the low-country planters. Education was difficult in the backwoods of South Carolina and he could only intermittently attend school run by his brother-in-law. John Calhoun received only sporadic education during his early years attending a “field school” for a few months every year (US Senate, n.d.). After the school in Georgia closed down, Calhoun engaged in self-study but his father’s death forced him to return to the family farm. He returned to the farm until remained at home till 1800 till his mother and other members of the family recognized his academic potential. The academy at Georgia had reopened by then and he was sent back for studies. He was a voracious reader and acquired taste for history and politics (Ulbrich). Under family pressure he went in to graduate from Tale College and then studied law. From early childhood he was taught to read the Bible and was trained in the Calvinistic doctrines. Although he was devoted to history and metaphysics, because of ill health he could not pursuer in these areas. Calhoun went to Yale in 1802 and displayed great originality of thought, devotion to study and a great ambition which won him laurels and honors in class (Evisum, 2000). At that time President Dwight had prophesied that Calhoun would reach the greatest eminence in life and might attain the Presidency. Legal education Calhoun began his legal education in 1804 soon after leaving Newport. He first studied at Charleston and later at Connecticut. He returned to South Carolina in 1806 and served brief apprenticeships at Charleston and Abbeville. He was admitted to the bar in 1807 but in the summer of 1807, he helped organize a town meeting to protest the British attack on the American vessel Chesapeake off the Virginia coast (Hatfield, 1997). His speech won him immediate acclaim and he was elected to the South Caroline legislature where he served two terms. He then entered the House of Representatives in 1811, in his thirtieth year. Family Calhoun started courting his cousin Floride Colhoun whom he married in 1811. Although it is customary for the bride to keep her own fortune, but all of bride’s property was placed in Calhoun’s hands. This position in marriage gave Calhoun a status among the gentlefolk of the seaboard. They had seven children out of which seven survived to adulthood. His beloved daughter and confidante Anne Maria inherited Fort Hill and after her death, Ann’s husband willed the Calhoun plantation to the state for a public university (Ulbrich). As husband, father, neighbor, citizen and friend, Calhoun was pure, upright, sincere and honest. He was simple and unpretending in his manners; rigid and strict in his morals, and temperate and discreet in his habits (Evisum). He was fascinating in conversation and magnanimous in his public and private relations. He was idolized by his state and even in his death, he received the greatest honors, respected and revered for his genius. His fame is a noble heritage to the country and the mankind. Personal characteristics Simple and sincere in his tastes, habits and manners, Calhoun believed in strict morals and was incorruptible in integrity (Evisum, 2000). He was thorough in his investigations and could perceive and comprehend the problems and solutions of the political life. He dedicated his life for the investigation of political and social economy, and went into details of departmental administration. He was raised as a Calvinist and remained a firm Calvinist in his work ethic. He resisted simple pleasures like dancing and had a bleak view of human nature. He was strongly attracted to the philosophical and rational orientation of the emerging liberal tradition. John Calhoun was an outright person not afraid of his views, his thoughts and his doctrines. His attitude as a thinker and speaker were regal. He had an air of warrior whenever he spoke, never fearful about his position, never anxious to guard his reputation with qualifications and securities (Southern, 1854). He could thus speak out the truth and he was neither tyrannical nor disobedient of the laws. He had the power to convince others and great regard for truth at all times. His character was not tainted as those of most public men and his private character rises to the highest altitude of moral grandeur. He was a man of integrity, of stern and sterling virtues. He could withstand the demand of any occasion and proved to be the heart of truth, constancy and honor. The Politician The War of 1812 had a great impact on the political views of Calhoun. He was convinced that American honor, prestige, and devotion to principle had been vindicated, which prompted him to declare war. Although he had started as a nationalist, he converted himself to a federalist to maintain his goals of saving the liberty of all American citizens and secondly, saving the unity of union (Studyworld, 1996). Through out his career, his political philosophy was to protect the great American principles of "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness". Calhoun was firm on his stand in waging war against the British while leader of the opposition John Randolph argued because he feared that America would not be able to win another war against the British (Studyworld, 1996). He feared that the slaves would revolt, join with the British and help in defeating America. Besides, Randolph questioned how American could against a nation to which America owed its heritage. Calhoun was firm on his stand as he was convinced that British behavior was a barrier to expansion, to the prosperity of American seaports and to the spread of domestic institutions. Calhoun stated that America must defend "that proud spirit of liberty which sustained our fathers". Calhoun was thus a nationalist in calling for war against England. He insisted that the war had positive effects beyond the mere maintenance of national self-respect. He considered the war a complete success because amongst other benefits, it led to the promotion of domestic industry. The prosperity and the glory from the war had given rise to sentiments in favor of union and against a sectional spirit (Gutzman, 2002). Hence, this is considered an immense contribution by Calhoun to America. Calhoun represented a conscious minority with special problems, brought new variations into political thinking and developed a unique system of social analysis. He had a keen sense of social structure and class forces (Hofstadter). People have expressed very high opinion of Calhoun. He had the voice of a professor of mathematic that suited his didactic discourse. He appealed to people as a moral and mental abstraction than a politician. His theories and his sense of duty took priority over everything. He was intelligent and industrious. He was a brilliant orator and no dignity could be more supreme than him (Richey). Calhoun as a Congressman Calhoun arrived in Washington in November 1811 and had been appointed to the Foreign Affairs Committee at the beginning of his first term. When he arrived he was an ardent Federalist and he aligned himself with the federalist faction of the Republican Party led by Speaker of the House Henry Clay (Rafuse, 2008). He was also a prominent member of the partys War Hawk faction which was responsible for the War of 1812, the nation’s second war with Great Britain. He was soon appointed its chairman in the spring of 1812 as he played a leading role in supporting legislation to strengthen the nation’s defenses. He served the house until 1817 and even after the near-defeat of the War of 1812 he continued his interest in limitary affairs. Calhoun "equated defense with national self-sufficiency” and in support of his belief he accepted protective tariffs and helped draft legislation to establish the Second Bank of the United States in 1816 (Hatfield, 1997). He proposed to the legislation to earmark funds for the infrastructure development as he felt this was essential for economic development and national security. In the office of the Vice-President John C. Calhoun assumed office as the nations seventh vice president on March 4, 1825. While the Federalist Party was dissolved after the War of 1812, as President James Monroe had hoped, the “era of good feelings” did not usher in (Hatfield, 1997). The nation was going through a chaotic and turbulent period of realignment and Calhoun’s strict sense of honor and propriety was disturbed when he came to know of the pact between John Adams and Henry Clay. As the vice president, he reminded people of his wartime contributions. Through his speeches he urged the people to be conscious of saving their nation from foreign hands. He was also of the opinion that the cornerstone of the American political system was the office-holders’ responsibility to the people. His vice-presidency marked the beginning of his life as a constitutional statesman. He studied the principles of the constitutional system and founded a school of political philosophy. These writings were maintained in his speeches, writings and reports. Calhoun was reelected the vive president in 1928 under the Presidentship of Jackson. His support to Jackson was to ultimately derive benefits for the south. He knew he was being used by Jackson’s chief strategist Martin Van Buren because the latter felt Calhoun was essential to his strategy of forging a coalition of "planters of the South and the plain Republicans of the North" to drive Adams from the White House (Hatfield). Even though the “tariff of Abominations” included no relief for the southerners and imposed severe hardships on the region, Calhoun convinced them to gold their anger. He was thinking in terms or the larger interest of the region and that if Jackson came to power, he would reform the tariff schedules. On the other hand, if they protested, it might cost Jackson the election. Works Calhoun had written several papers and reports and some were very notable. Calhoun pointed out in his Disquisition of Government, that the bureaucrats extracted their income from the taxpayers and their own tax payments were only an accounting fiction (Rothbard, 1995). Because of the government bureaucracy there were two classes in the society – the net tax payers and the net tax consumers. One group of people in the US bore the burden of taxes and through this supported the government where as the other group of people was supported by the government thru disbursement of these taxes collected. In Treatise on Government he expressed his views on the powers that the government can exercise. He pointed out that government becomes essential to help people exercise restraint on the selfish passions of nature but the government itself needs restraint (Southern, 1854). The government should not be allowed to misuse its power. Selecting the government on the basis of numbers of majority can lead to tyranny and hence he suggested that there should be a representative authority founded on the different interests of the society with a veto authority blending together. Nullification doctrine The Nullification doctrine was the first line of defense to protect the rights of the minority against tyranny. It was to particularly defend the rights of the southern agricultural slave owners against the rising power of northern capitalists (Ulbrich). As a politician he believed in strong conventionalism and was not attached to any party. Although his reverence for the American constitution was sincere, ardent and unremitted, he despised the fallacy that Washington could speak for the whole country (Southern, 1854). He was of the opinion that each state should be left to deal independently with their own affairs. Within the restrictions of the Constitution, they should be allowed to take care of their own immediate interests. He claimed that the states had the right to refuse to enforce or nullify a federal law if it was not in their interest. South Carolina passed an ordinance that claimed to nullify federal tariffs. The tariffs were in favor of the northern manufacturing units and South Carolina declared them to be unconstitutional (Wikiepedia). Calhoun formed a party in Carolina called the Nullifier party. The nullifiers threatened secession if the Tariff of 1828 was not withdrawn but President Jackson warned that he would use armed force to preserve the Union. The Congress passed the Force Bill which empowered the President to use military power to force states to obey any federal laws. In order to avert a civil war, Calhoun had to give in and compromise with his political opponent Henry Clay. Calhoun argued for the Doctrine of Nullification anonymously without making his true opinion known to Jackson. Calhoun’s stand for nullification was based on the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions of 1798. He believed that giving the veto power to the states was a logical reformation, not a revolution (Studyworld, 1996). Since Supreme Court is an arm of the federal government, they would naturally support the federal government and hence Supreme Court should not be allowed to decide the Constitutionality of laws. With nullification Calhoun’s idea was to control the power of the majority. His main objective was to continue with the liberty of the south but in the process the nullification would give equal powers to all states. Slavery Calhoun began his career as a nationalist but by mid 1820s he started identifying himself closely with his state and region in the sectional conflict over tariff and slavery. Calhoun had grown up in agrarian culture that mistrusted industry and urbanization. He led the pro-slavery faction in the 1830s and 1840s opposing abolitionism and also any attempts to limit the expansion of slavery into the western territories. He believed in the cooperation of Free States in returning escaping slaves. He asserted that slavery was a positive good and he supported the southern states’ rights to preserve the institution of slavery into the western territories. All societies had an elite group and a labor class but here the labor class was cast aside to die in poverty by the aristocracy when they became too old to live or work. Calhoun’s defense of slavery played a major role in deepening the divide between the Southern and the Northern states on this issue. After the war of 1812, when tariff was imposed to raise funds, Calhoun was against it because he felt tariff favored industrialization and this would eventually stop slavery in the south (Studyworld, 1996). If this happened two undesirable circumstances would come up. Firstly, south would lose it most important institution, namely slavery, and with it, its great traditions and gentlemanly manners. Secondly, every society has a working class and an autocratic class. If slavery were abolished, the whites would be forced to work at low wages. This would take away the "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness" which the whites enjoyed now. This may seem a racist view but at that time the blacks were considered inferior to whites. He hence declared the tariff of 1828 unconstitutional as the sole purpose was not raise revenue. Though it was the tariff issue that brought Calhoun to the forefront, slavery was the most important issue to the south. All the slave states were unified on the issue of slavery. Hence it made political sense for Calhoun to devote himself to the cause of slavery. From 1833 to 1850, as a member of the U.S. Senate, a private citizen, and also during a stint as President John Tylers secretary of state in 1844-1845, Calhoun worked to insulate the institution from any sort of attack (Rafuse). Doctrine of “concurrent majorities” He did not believe in simple majorities in which one group could override or disregard the different needs and values of the other. According to Calhoun, any policy that is potentially divisive, in which one group benefits at the cost of the other should require separate concurrency by coalitions of states, regions, or interests (Ulbrich). Although this was initially meant to protect the institution of slavery, this doctrine has now gained respect as a means of accommodating diversity in a heterogeneous society. Requiring concurrent majority would safeguard slavery in a political climate that was increasingly anti-slavery. The south enjoyed too little representation in the government to defend its interest. According to him, "To govern by the numerical majority alone is to confuse a part of the people with the whole," (Rafuse). He continued to defend slavery on ethical, moral and political grounds. He believed that the liberty that the southerners enjoyed depended on slavery. According to him owning slaves was a status symbol. Cotton was the most widely developed labor-intensive crop and as production increased greater number of hands would be required. So having more laborers meant upward mobility and destroying slavery would be to destroy a powerful symbol of what motivated the southern man to improve himself. Calhoun – the sound economist Calhoun was never the champion of sound economics (Watkins, 1995). It was the south’s exploitation of the north regarding the tariffs that awakened in Calhoun an understanding of basic economics. He is remembered for his republican principles rather than his economic acumen although he battled for free trade, low duties, no debt, separation from banks, economy, retrenchment and a strict adherence to the Constitution. Calhoun opposed the protective tariff on constitutional and economic grounds. He believed that the government should not be allowed to misuse the powers and hence the power to levy tariffs can only be used to raise revenue to meet the legitimate expenses of the government. The government has ho right to oppress one group for the benefit of the other, he emphasized. He felt that inflation robbed the innocent man of the fruits of his labor. Currency expansion led to corruption of public and private morals. Another disadvantage of currency expansion is that initially people benefit as more businessmen are attracted and there is increased production but over time the distress and embarrassment steps in. It is usually a period of artificial growth which has to be followed by readjustments as it is a period of delusive prosperity. Devaluation of money amounted to violation of people’s trust in the government according to Calhoun as it robbed them of their earnings. He strived through out for the cause of liberty and that made him fight for sound economic policies. His policies concerned the common man but his grasp of the economic matters was ignored by historian. The Calhoun-Jackson alliance Calhoun and Jackson won with 56 percent of the popular vote and this presidential campaign was one of the most bitterly contested elections in history. Calhoun’s second term as the vice president was even more of an ordeal than the first. His suspicions were confirmed that Jackson would be a great threat to popular liberties. He did not comply in repudiating the tariff as he was under the spell of Van Buren. The vice president Calhoun was soon isolated within the administration where Van Buren had the ruling hand. There was an open confrontation between the two on the nullification issue and Jackson proclaimed that nullification was tantamount to treason. Personal conflicts and Jackson’s commitment to the supremacy of the national government made it impossible for the two to work together (Rafuse, 2008). Apart from the issues of tariff and nullification, Jackson disliked his vide president for various reasons. They had altercations and differences on several issues with no conclusion reached but Calhoun on his part, published the correspondence in the United States Telegraph of February 17 and 25, 1831, addressing the people of the United States. Calhoun was now totally overshadowed by the men appointed by Van Buren. This was the break between the president and the vice president. Calhoun was then asked to fill the seat of the US Senate in South Carolina. Calhoun believed that he would be able to reconcile southern agriculturalists and northern manufacturers with some modifications in the tariff. As a senator he openly led the fight against the tariff which he felt was an intentional attempt by the Congress to dictate economic policy (Rafuse). When circumstances forced him to make public his opinion on tariff and nullification, any chances that he had of becoming the president were diminished. Conclusion Thus we can see that Calhoun’s goal was to insure the power of the local agrarian elite by limiting the power of the federal government. If the government power was decentralized, it would allow the planters to maintain power and protect the labor system that made their great wealth and status possible. He fought till the end for the southerners. His main contribution to the society and to the country was the pro-slavery drive; the economic reforms which people would not understand then and equal rights for all. He did not believe in the supremacy of the federal government and felt the states should be empowered to take decisions that concerned their region, within the framework of the Constitution. He stuck to his stand at all times and became a nationalist in all his fights for the south. Even his attempts to wage war against the British were meant to save the country against tyranny and were not with any personal motives. He was man who stood for the nation, worked for the people and die with full honors. He was revered during his life time and also in his death. He fought against evils and always had justifications for all his moves. References: Evisum. (2000). John C. Calhoun, Retrieved February 01, 2008 from the World Wide Web: http://www.virtualology.com/zacharytaylor.net/millardfillmore.org/johnccalhoun.com/ Gutzman, K. R. C. (2002). PAUL TO JEREMIAH: CALHOUN’S ABANDONMENT OF NATIONALISM, Journal of Libertarian Studies Volume 16, no. 2 (Spring 2002), pp. 3– 33 Hatfield, M. O. (1997). Vice Presidents of the United States John C. Calhoun (1825-1832), Retrieved February 01, 2008 from the World Wide Web: http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/john_calhoun.pdf Hofstadter, R. (n.d.). John C. Calhoun: The Marx of the Master Class, Retrieved February 01, 2008 from the World Wide Web: http://www.montgomerycollege.edu/Departments/hpolscrv/jccalhoun.html Rafuse, E. S. (2008). John C. Calhoun: He Started the Civil War, Retrieved February 01, 2008 from the World Wide Web: http://www.historynet.com/magazines/civil_war_times/3036526.html Richey, S.( n.d.). JOHN C. CALHOUN – The Cast Iron Man, Retrieved February 01, 2008 from the World Wide Web: http://www.ssbn630.org/id24.html Rothbard, M.N. (1995). BUREAUCRACY AND THE CIVIL SERVICE IN THE UNITED STATES, JOURNAL OF LIBERTARIAN STUDIES 11 :2 (SUMMER 1995): 3-75. Southern, E. R. (1854), Works of John C. Calhoun, The Ney York Times. July 17, 1854 Studyworld. (1006). John C. Calhoun and His Defense of Liberty, Retrieved February 01, 2008 from the World Wide Web: http://www.studyworld.com/john_c_calhoun.htm Ulbrich, N. (1999). John C. Calhoun, Retrieved February 01, 2008 from the World Wide Web:http://www25.uua.org/uuhs/duub/articles/johnccalhoun.html US Senate. (n.d.). John C. Calhoun, 7th Vice President (1825-1832), Retrieved February 01, 2008 from the World Wide http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_John_Calhoun.htm Watkins, W. W. (1005). John C. Calhoun: Champion of Sound Economics, The Freeman: Ideas on Liberty - February 1995, Vol. 45 No. 2, Retrieved February 01, 2008 from the World Wide Web: http://www.fee.org/publications/the-freeman/article.asp?aid=2685 Wikipedia. John C. Calhoun, Retrieved February 01, 2008 from the World Wide Web: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_C._Calhoun Read More