The Functionalist Architecture Tradition of the 20th Century - Term Paper Example

Sorry for the delay. Please just send a message if you need anything. Thanks! History of the 20th Century In the commitment of tradition Minimalism is the continuous of functionalism Abstract Studying the existence of tradition in architecture is a challenging endeavour particularly in understanding and delineating each one in terms of character and quality. Result of this study shows the functionalist architecture tradition dominated the 20th century due to modern movement’s influence active promotion of International Style..Differences between functionalist and minimalist approaches were found in principle and work as well as the strong connection between minimalist ideas and functionalist approaches. This relationship is found in the use of common concept such as the “form follows function”, disregard to ornamentation, use of minimum elements to achieve architectural goals, use of common materials such as concrete, steel and glass, and designs that take advantage of natural lighting. Table of Contents Contents Contents 3 3.1 Functional is rational architecture thus strictly no artistry 6 1. Introduction Studying the existence of tradition in architecture is a challenging endeavour particularly in understanding and delineating each one in terms of character and quality. In particular, developing an argument that support and explain these types of tradition and establishing the relationship between them. In this study, tradition in 20th architecture is discussed in relation to two of the most popular and influential tradition – Minimalism and Functionalism. The purpose is to establish their differences and similarities as well as relationships in terms principle and goals. The following section discusses the 20th century architecture, functionalist and minimalist tradition, influence of famous 20th century architects in terms ideas and actual work, difference and similarities in tradition, analogy of relationship and concluding statements. 2. The 20th Century Architecture Architects of the 20th century see themselves as innovators incorporating and developing radical ways of architecture practices1. With belief and philosophies of Le Corbusier who is one of the giant figures of 20th century architecture, the “modern movement” succeeded in influencing building design in cities worldwide and in the 1930s, modernist coined the term “International Style” to describe a plain and bare bone design 2. Historically, accounts of modern movement in Europe are primarily focused on several leading personalities’ achievements3. These include functionalist Mies van der Rohe known for his use of steel and glass4, Walter Gropius who is the founder of Bauhaus School of Art, Architecture, and Design and known for his unornamented building design5, and Le Corbusier, the hero of modern movement and known for his “Five Points Toward New Architecture”6. Beauty in functionalist view depends on function which is rational and scientific7 thus similar to “products of machines”8, buildings must be functional or useful. The term “minimalism” was first used to describe stripped-down sculptures of artist like Morris, Flavin, Judd, and others in the 1960s that are mostly unadorned9. In architecture, the term minimalism is about architects whose work is marked by reduction in expressive media, simplicity, clean, and use of empty space10. Considered by some authors as the last phase of modernism and extreme version of International Style11, minimalist architecture focused on simplicity, functionality, and economy of buildings12. The loss of historical consciousness in architecture from the late 1920s to early 1960s as a result of Gropius and Le Corbusier’s advocacies, started what 13 referred to as the “first of view incarnations” of Minimalism promoting independence of styles in modern architecture. Moreover, the overt emphasis on functionality and recognition of the universal inapplicability of Le Corbusier’s International Style diminished the influence of functionalism and adoption of a fresh approach in design for the modern world14. Following the simplicity principle of modern architecture, minimalist limit the use of volume and building materials15 but disengaged with the functionalist concept of “building machines for living”16. Minimalism can be viewed as an essentialist because it reduce things to the level that it will serve a particular purpose17 such as the human need for beauty and comfort that often ignored in functionalist architecture18. Since beauty is an essential need, minimalist architecture does not eliminate ornamentation but rather reduce them to an acceptable level. Moreover, minimalist not only takes into account both building’s physical qualities and human condition but spiritual dimension and the invisible such as the need for natural light and air19. 3. The Functionalist Tradition 3.1 Functional is rational architecture thus strictly no artistry Functionalism in modern architecture was first conceived in late nineteenth century but more prevalent in 1920s and 1930s20. According to 21, building design in functionalist architecture should fulfil the purpose of the building thus unification between art and engineering is critical and dissolving the artistry in the architect’s mind is a functionalist ideals22, elimination of ornamentation is obligatory. This “rational” architecture was inspired by factory-based machine production techniques that Le Corbusier and Mies van de Rohe enthusiastically termed “mass-production spirit”23 and open to “refinement and optimum utilisation of industrial technique”24 respectively. Le Corbusier’s in 1926 articulated his “Five Points Toward a New Architecture” and as cited in 25, the first point is about elevating the first floor precisely calculated and regularly spaced supports of pilotis. The second point is about transforming the flat roof to a garden so that surrounding ground can be use for outdoor activities. The third is encouraging free plan so that interior walls are independent of the structure’s support system. As the support system is free, the fourth point recommended horizontal windows for additional and constant natural alighting. The fifth on the other hand suggest free design of facade. By analysis, the above five points seems to express Corbusier’s functional ideas of having independent systems to maximise natural lighting, allow flexible facade design, and making the terrain unobstructed for recreational facilities. The roof garden for instance is systematic utilization of empty space while elevating the first floor with precise placement of support is scientific-based solution not only to reduce the load for supporting structures but also to move the rooms away for the dampness of the soil26. In essence, all points above taken together means new aesthetic for building27, his preference for rational architecture through constructive scheme28, and freedom for designers to carry out their ideas29. 3.2 Functionalism is socially and morally aware architecture Functionalist architecture is also based on moral grounds that unnecessary, expensive, and arbitrary additions interfere with the ability of the building to satisfy social needs thus ornaments, superficial and scientifically unjustified elements are typically rejected30. It is not merely an intellectual exercise but socially aware, guided by moral imperatives and social mission, local realities, sense of righteousness, and the desire to make life better31. Moreover, since this architectural approach is based on modern industrial practices, it lack architectural ambition, strict, standardised, share the methods of benefits of mass production, and demonstrate social progressivism or architectural response to social changes32. 3.3 Functionalism is symbolically functional Functionalism in architecture is marked by superficial aesthetic33 that seek to create forms symbolising the machine age34. According to 35 , considering the political and economic situations in the 1920s and 1930s, functionalist architecture was readily accepted as an economical alternative although it was not. This is because aside from being inherently not economical from other architectural approaches, its motivation is deeply grounded on aesthetic and symbolism36. For instance, the use of simple lines and form instead of complex geometric shapes, steel and concrete skeleton, glass walls, natural light and ventilation are functionalist building design symbolizing the modern machine era37. The form of structure in this architectural tradition is often derived from the expression of efficiency thus characterised by strict specification of requirements and multi-purpose building design38. According to Christensen (2012)39 , although strictly follows the concept that “form follows function”, functionalist architecture is “symbolically functional”. For instance, according to Frank Llyod Wright and Ayn Rand40, the notion that form follows function was taken seriously in the design and construction of the River Rouge Plant and Level Brothers Building but not to aesthetic of skyscrapers in New York and Chicago. This is because although they are incontestably functional, they appear more as symbols of modern corporations and large business enterprises41. 3.4 Functionalist architects and their works Functionalism in architecture is best described through the works of various functionalist architects such as Le Corbusier, Mies, Gropius, and others. Le Corbusier’s 1925 Plan Voisin was his suggestion to redevelop Paris but did not materialise. However, his work clearly illustrates his functionalist view of urban density with linear and nodal buildings. His works reflect the pervasive concept in functionalist architecture with freestanding building and isolated objects on a wide green space or plaza42. In addition to light, space, and air, Corbusier, neatly divided industries, offices, and housing and link infrastructures to recreation zones. In his 1914 project, Corbusier proposed the Domino House designed with separate structure and enclosure. The proposed house has a free plan with flexibly distributed walls and facade that in essence followed his functionalist reductive thinking of minimising all components to minimum43 and the five points mentioned earlier. Architects Purcher and Bramberger in 2008 designed and built this apartment building in Estonia based on Corburier’s idea. Built in 1929-31 as a weekend house, Corbusier’s Villa Savoye similarly demonstrate the functionalist approach of eliminating load-bearing walls, unadorned surfaces, openness, use of steel and concrete, and realisation of the “machine for living”44. Similar to other Corbusier’s design, the Maison La Roche (left image) demonstrate that structures are not merely about superficial styling and cosmetics around the building but functionality and simplicity45. The chapel of Notre Dame du Haute (shown in left image below) and the Unite d’ Habitation of Marseilles projects is again a reminder of how Corbusier strictly adhere to his functionalist principle as they were executed in planes, pilotis, roofscape, and colours in refined patterns of soft hues46. Although it was drawn by Wallace Harrison and his proposal to employ his usual “pilotis” strategy and cover the building with glass walls with metals screen were rejected, as a consultant, the United Nations Headquarters in New York design still borrowed some of Corbusier’s ideas such as the open plaza, flat roofline, and the geometric concrete masses. Similarly, Corbusier’s influence on modern architecture is also evident in the Palace of Justice in India with striking gigantic folded-concrete roof and pyramidal skylight47. Mies van der Rohe notable projects on the other hand include the Farnsworth House, Seagram Building, Museum of Fine Arts or the Cullinan Hall, Lake Shore Drive Apartments,Toronto Dominion Centre, IBM Plaza, and others. In 1946, Mies designed the Farnsworth House (left image) in Piano , Illinois that is an all glasshouse elevated from the ground, sitting in simple white frame, and natural light reflecting his functionalist ideas of steel and glass. Similarly, the one-storey Crown Hall that Mies designed in 1956 in Chicago, is also raised from the ground with four deep panel girders supporting the roof that allow column free interior indicating rationality and flexibility to change and other uses48. The Barcelona Pavillion and the Tugendhat House are two of Mies’s early projects. Built in 1929, the Barcelona Pavillion is characterised by its stainless-steel tables, stools, chairs, and a sculpture of a dancing girl placed in a reflecting pool. It is also raised from the ground and horizontal roof slab supported by eight cruciform columns, independent walls, exterior courtyard, and a pool lined with black glass. Using the concept, Mies’s designed the two-storey Tugendhat House in Czech Republic with chromium-steel cruciform and polished marble slabs, glass walls, and a series of terraces cut into the slope of the hilly site49. Although not constructed as it was intended as a competition entry in 1919, the Mies’s design of 20-storey Berlin Friedrichstrasse station significantly impact in later architecture as it is completely sheathed in glass. This design reflects Mies’s concept of transparent skyscraper and glazed buildings with irregular perimeter in order to take advantage of varying reflections50. Mies is also responsible for a pair of apartment tower in Lake Michigan known by their address. The first one for instance, the 860 Lake Shore Drive is the first steel and glass 26-storey high-rise residential building in the United States and an evident reflection of Mies’s glass-tower schemes in the early 1900s. The building is framed in steel with masonry casing for fireproofing while thin I-beams that run continuously to the top of building as window mullion to improve the vertical appearance of the building51. The second on which was built in 1946-1949, is a 22-storey Promontory Apartments located in southern side of Lake Shore Drive. This building is designed with two versions with one using exposed reinforced concrete with brick panels and the other with steel and glass with intention of giving the building interior greater openness. Both this apartments contain rooms arranged on an open plan that reflects Mie’s architeturral rationality and desire for flexibility52. This architectural approach was also employed in New York’s Seagram Building in 1958 and Nationalgalerie building in Berlin in 1968. Similar, to Crown Hall design, these buildings reflect Mies’s used of rational architecture and in particular, universal spaces and used of rectangular geometries and steel-framing systems that in essence increasing the visibility of modern architecture and awareness of the international style53. In 1959, Mies’s continue to express his ideas of skeletal buildings, steel-and-glass structures, and circulation routes for building occupants as demonstrated in La Fayette Park, an urban renewal project in Detroit. This park is marked by high and low-rise housing distributed in park-like setting, 20 feet wide paved path, natural grasses, newly planted trees and flowers, and others reflecting Mies’s ideas of modern architecture. The painted steel in Bacardi Office Building in Mexico and the anodized aluminium used in Montreal’s Westmount Square is a continuation of Mies’s quest for steel-framed buildings, external steel-and-glass skin hanging from frame like curtains, and regularly spaced steel mullions and spandrels covering the edges of the floor54. Similarly, Mies design of the Chicago Federal Centre consist of three iconic buildings and an open plaza with underground parking garage is an expression of Mies’s international style ranging from rectangular shape, frequent use of glass, balance and regularity in place of symmetry, horizontal bands of windows, form and function, and without or very minimal ornamentation55. Walter Gropius work includes the Fagus Factory, Bahaus, Sommerfield House, competition entry for Chicago Tribune Tower, the Embassy of the United States in Athens, and others. In the Fagus Factory, Gropius expressed his rational architecture in terms of plane surfaces, glass and iron walls and similar to Mies and Corbusier, he exemplifies the modern movement with curtain walls that are independent of the load-bearing brick piers and floor slabs, with clean lines and generous lighting56. In Bahaus, Gropius took advantage of reinforced-concrete frame arranged freely on flat ground, glass curtain wall, movable walls for maximum flexibility, without ornament, and in expressing design based on industrial production. In contrast, the Sommerfeld House used wood for every element while the interior is marked by free plan and allowances for future improvement57. His unsuccessful entry for Chicago Tribune Tower in 1922 once again displayed his belief as a functionalist architect and faithfulness to the principles employed in Fagus Factory with asymmetric design, irregularly arranged slabs projecting away from the facade, absence of ornaments, and simplicity and honesty of the modern movement58. However, in 1936, Gropius was asked to work on Impington Village College building design. Aside from functional design usual character such as simplicity, integration, and elegance, the design is intended to preserve the natural composition of the site. Consequently, the school buildings are more mostly one-storey with low horizontal wings that provide direct access, increase exposure to sunlight, fresh air, and outside views59. In 1959, Gropius was asked to design the 2-storey United States Embassy in Athens and as expected, the resulting construction is a building with walls of glass, lack ornamentation colonnade of marble piers, an interior courtyard where people can mingle freely, and strong emphasis on practicality and functionality60. In Baghdad, Gropius work is a bit different from the embassy project as he needs to act in regionalist manner and set aside Bauhaus tradition. In avoiding excessive Americanism, Gropius designed a concrete version of Islamic mashrabiya, vaults on top of skyscrapers, gigantic dome for mosque that is surrounded by a circular pool, and a large area for vehicular traffic61. Gropius is also responsible for Harvard’s first modern building which is considered a product of international style62. For instance, it has one common building and seven concrete dormitories located in a series of quadrangles, they are steel framed and covered with bricks, linked by covered walks blending with the scale of Harvard yard63. 4. The Minimalist Tradition Believed to be the last phase of the modern movement, minimal architecture emerged in the early 1960s promote a more technical perspective and designs that go beyond functional and beauty64. Contrary to functional building design, reduction to a fundamental level of function and beauty is the common goal of minimalist architecture65. In particular, the minimalist extensive focus on the activity of building or interactive system that provides combined and consistent functionality to the user66. Some of the most popular minimalist architects include Tadao Ando, John Pawson, Alberto Campo Baeza, David Chipperfield, and Luis Branagan. Ando is a Japanese architect whose work is known for severe minimalism, efficient use of space, simple materials, and structures devoid of aesthetic. He is also recognised for his use of natural light and exposed concrete and similar to Barragan and Pawson, Ando often use reductive forms in his work. Some of his important projects include the Mount Rokko Chapel, Water Temple, Azuma House, Times Gallery, Galleria Akka, The Pulitzer Foundation for the Arts building, and others67. The Mount Rokko Chapel has a garden area, a narrow walk , plane walls, and natural light coming from a window offering a view of the garden. His temple design (Water and Lotus Temple) is marked by oval dish roof, straight and curved concrete wall with spare space naturally lighted by two side windows68. His brand of minimalist architecture is also evident in his other projects mentioned above that are mostly following the principle of function, exposed structure, and raw materials69. Similarly, the work of John Pawson is often focusing on the quality of space and refinement of smallest details in junction, light and surfaces. His projects include the Cannelle Cake Shop, Calvin Klein stores, New Wardour Castle, Hotel Puerta America, Royal Botanic Gardens, Novy Dvur Monastery, and others. In Hotel Puerta America and Novy Dvur Monastery for instance, Pawson employs his reductive design with careful control light, proportion, manipulation of space, and minimal use of materials such as polished plaster, concrete, timber, and glass70. 5. Differences Between Functionalist and Minimalist Tradition in Principle and Actual Architectural Works By analogy, the main differences between functionalist and minimalist architectural tradition can be found in both in principle and work. In principle, functionalist holds that rational and scientific architecture is beauty while minimalist prefers simplicity, cleanliness, and efficient use of space. In functionalism, art and engineering is unified and artistry is completely restricted. In contrast, although both focusing on simplicity and functionality, minimalism take into account the economy of building and the freedom of style. Note that the Corbusier’s International Style discussed earlier is in line with his five points toward new architecture and therefore lack historical consciousness and restrictive of other styles. Moreover, simplicity in minimalist architecture does not include complete eradication of ornamentation but efficient use of space and building materials. The functionalist concept of “building machines for living” has no place in the minimalist movement because it is only interested in reductive strategies or reducing elements to the level, it can effectively serve their purpose. Therefore, as opposed to functionalism, human needs for beauty and comfort is not ignored in minimalist architecture but rather reduced to a certain level that it can effectively contribute to the physical qualities of the building. In finding these differences, it is important to note although Corbusier’s articulation of points toward a new architecture as discussed earlier is by analysis encourages building of independent systems to maximise natural lighting, flexibility in facade design, and effective use of surrounding area, this does not necessarily mean freedom of expression but freedom ideas in line with functionalist principle. Therefore, artistry is still restrained regardless of flexibility and independence. In terms of social awareness and morality, the advocacy of functionalist architecture is more prominent compared to minimalist. For instance, although economy is both a concern, expensive and scientifically unjustified elements are totally rejected in functionalism. Moreover, since functionalist architecture is based on modern industrial practices, its social mission and moral imperatives is localised and taking to account the requirements of a particular region as demonstrated by Gropius in his Baghdad project. In contrast, minimalist architect like Tadao Ando and John Pawson, are more interested in individual requirements as demonstrated by Ando’s and Pawson projects discussed earlier. For instance, in terms of aesthetic and functionality, Ando’s design for galleries is different from the design employed for temples while Pawson’s work in the Monastery and Calvin Klein stores. However, this does not necessarily that morality and social awareness in minimalism is less because beauty, comfort, and economy are socially and morally relevant. Being both symbolic and functional, functionalist architecture symbolises the machine age while minimalist architecture is not. Although follows similar “forms and function” concept, minimalist does not take this seriously as evidenced by Ando’s and Pawson’s repeated use of reductive forms and materials other than glass. In other words, there is no grandeur in minimalist projects but simplicity and refinement. Although both are fascinated with steel, concrete, glass, natural lighting, and efficient use of space, it is quite evident that structures proposed and built by Corbusier, Mies, and Gropius are functionally elegant compared to Ando and Pawson’s artistic but functional structures. The difference is the fact that minimalist architects are essentialist and reject the idea of “building machine” and its associated symbolism. Minimalism does not elude existence, it is an inherent concentration of experience and pleasure, and in John Pawson’s own words, the architect that brought minimalist architecture to life, “Emptiness allows us to see space as it is, to see architecture as it is, preventing ti from being corrupted, or hidden, by the incidental debris of paraphernalia of everyday life” as cited in 71 6. Minimalism is the continuous of functionalism – The Continuity of Tradition History suggests that Le Corbusier, Mies van der Rohe, and Walter Gropius pursued a rational and minimalist approach to architecture72. “Less is more” is a minimalist motto that was actually popularised by Mies van der Rohe who in turn sought to use the minimum elements necessary to achieve the goals of his projects73. However, although similar in concept, the functionalist interpretation of this minimalist concept is somewhat overt as ornamentation is completely taken as waste with no value74. In real life application, minimalist used of “Less is more” does not include total reduction because of considerations provided to human needs for beauty mentioned earlier. In fact, minimalist designs reduce things to its essential elements or the fundamental level of functionality and beauty75. Note that Mies himself used a dancing girl decoration in Barcelona Pavillion and ornamentations in La Fayette Park but minimum. Another similar characteristic is the use of the concept “form and function” which is an element in functionalist International Style. In minimalist architecture, the form also follows function and in fact, it is a central concern of most minimalist to eliminate the superfluous and retain the essential76. Mies steel-and-glass approach is minimalism but this is not surprising as minimalist approach can be predicated on functionalism77. Functionalism reflects the enduring power of minimalism, which is also evident in Le Corbusier’s five points toward new architecture and works mentioned earlier specifically in terms of space maximisation and systematic arrangement of elements. The similarities in both principle and works suggest that functionalism in most part is minimalism thus there is a strong possibility that the form of minimalist architecture today carries with it similar valued principle of the functionalist movement. In particular, it may carry the rational and scientific approach to architecture and disregard to non-essential elements, the “form follows function” concept used in International Style, simplicity and others. However, as noted earlier, this continuity will certainly not carry the idea of “Building Machine” or reference to modern industrial production technique and total disregard to historical consciousness. 7. Conclusion Study of architectural tradition of the 20th century suggests that functionalism dominates the era with works of Corbusier, Mies, and Gropius and modern movement’s promotion of the International Style where beauty is measured by rationality and scientific relevance. There are indeed several differences between functionalist and minimalist architecture in both principle and works but its less compared to the strong relationship established by minimalist ideas found in functionalist approaches. These include functionalist use of minimum elements to achieve its goals, the form follows function concept where ornamentation is obligatorily restrained. Since minimalism was almost fully adopted in 20th century functionalist architecture which was somewhat successful, the tradition continue and may be present in today’s minimalist architectural approaches. 8. Bibliography Ayatollahi, H. & Haghshenās, S. (2003). The Book of Iran: The History of Iranian Art, Center for International-Cultural Studies Best, R. & de Valence, G. (2012). Design and Construction, Taylor & Francis Bhaskaran, L. (2005). Designs of the Times: Using Key Movements and Styles for Contemporary Design, RotoVision Blaser, W. (1997). Mies Van Der Rohe, Birkhauser Verlag Boundless (2013). Art History, Volume II: 1400-present, Boundless Learning, Incorporated Brooker, G. & Stone, S. (2010). What is Interior Design?, RotoVision Christensen, J. (2012). America's Corporate Art: The Studio Authorship of Hollywood Motion Pictures (1929–2001), Stanford University Press Cloninger, C. (2008). Fresher Styles for Web Designers: More Eye Candy from the Underground, Pearson Education Conrads, U. (1970). Programs and Manifestoes on 20th-century Architecture, MIT Press de Heer, J. (2009). The Architectonic Colour: Polychromy in the Purist Architecture of Le Corbusier, 010 Publishers DeKay, M. (2012). Integral Sustainable Design: Transformative Perspectives, Taylor & Francis Denslagen, W. & Gardner, D. (2009). Romantic Modernism: Nostalgia in the World of Conservation, Amsterdam University Press Eggener, K. (2004). American Architectural History: A Contemporary Reader, Routledge Gardner, H. & Kleiner, F. S. (2009). Gardner's Art Through the Ages: A Global History: A Global History, Thomson/Wadsworth Gissen, D. & Museum, N. B. (2003). Big and Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21st Century, Princeton Architectural Press Haen, T. & Bertens, J. W. (1995). Narrative Turns and Minor Genres in Postmodernism, Rodopi Hertzberger, H. (2000). Space and the Architect: Lessons in Architecture 2, 010 Publishers Hertzberger, H. & Rike, I. (2005). Lessons for Students in Architecture, 010 Publishers Hille, T. (2012). Modern Schools: A Century of Design for Education, Wiley Hollingsworth, A. (2009). Danish Modern, Gibbs Smith.Utah Johnson, D. L. & Langmead, D. (2013). Makers of 20th-Century Modern Architecture: A Bio-Critical Sourcebook, Taylor & Francis Kidder, D. S. & Oppenheim, N. D. (2010). The Intellectual Devotional Biographies: Revive Your Mind, Complete Your Education, and Acquaint Yourself with the World's Greatest Personalities, Rodale Langmead, D. & Garnaut, C. (2001). Encyclopedia of Architectural and Engineering Feats, ABC-CLIO Lefaivre, L. & Tzonis, A. (2012). Architecture of Regionalism in the Age of Globalization: Peaks and Valleys in the Flat World, Taylor & Francis Mallgrave, H. F. (2005). Modern Architectural Theory: A Historical Survey, 1673-1968, Cambridge University Press McDermott, C. (2007). Design: The Key Concepts, Routledge: Taylor & Francis.Oxon Miller, D. & Tilley, C. Y. (1984). Ideology, Power, and Prehistory, Cambridge University Press Moffett, M., Fazio, M. W. & Wodehouse, L. (2003). A World History of Architecture, Laurence King Muller, S. D. (2013). Dutch Art: An Encyclopedia, Taylor & Francis Nesbitt, K. (1996). Theorizing a New Agenda for Architecture: An Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965 - 1995, Princeton Architectural Press Noobanjong, K. (2003). Power, Identity, and the Rise of Modern Architecture: From Siam to Thailand, Dissertation.com.United States Obendorf, H. (2009). Minimalism: Designing Simplicity, Springer Olsen, P. E. (2008). Artifacts of Revolution: Architecture, Society, and Politics in Mexico City, 1920-1940, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Paden, R. (2007). Mysticism and Architecture: Wittgenstein and the Meanings of the Palais Stonborough, Lexington Rattenbury, K. (2013). This is Not Architecture: Media Constructions, Taylor & Francis Righini, P. (2000). Thinking Architecturally: An Introduction to the Creation of Form and Place, University of Cape Town Press Rybczynski, W. (2013). How Architecture Works: A Humanist's Toolkit, Farrar, Straus and Giroux Seasoltz, R. K. (2012). A Virtuous Church: Catholic Theology, Ethics, and Liturgy for the 21st Century, Orbis Books Slaton, A. E. (2003). Reinforced Concrete and the Modernization of American Building, 1900-1930, Johns Hopkins University Press Spielvogel, J. J. (2010). Western Civilization.: Since 1789, Cengage Learning Tiebert, L. (2012). Frommer's Chicago Day by Day, Wiley Torgerson, M. A. (2007). An Architecture of Immanence: Architecture for Worship and Ministry Today, William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company Trancik, R. (1986). Finding Lost Space: Theories of Urban Design, John Wiley & Sons Wertheimer, L. (2004). Architectural History, Kaplan AEC Architecture Whitehill, D. J. & University of Maryland, C. P. A. (2007). Post-industrial Production: Industrial Incubation in the Contemporary Urban Fabric, University of Maryland, College Park  Read More