Cities and Urban Life Are the Inevitable Outcome of Human Evolution - Coursework Example

CITIES AND URBAN LIFE ARE THE INEVITABLE OUTCOME OF HUMAN EVOLUTION By Location Urban areas and cities are developing all over the world every year, especially in the developing countries. Urban areas grow, because of a number of reasons. The evolution of people is one of the main causes of urbanization. This paper explains the different theories of urban growth and the features of urban areas. Urban areas and cities have universal features that may be missing in rural areas. Introduction The modern world is undergoing a wave of urban and city growth in history. By the year 2008, over half of the worlds population, according to estimates, will be dwelling in cities and towns. The number will rise to about 5 billion by 2013, with urban and city growth concentrated in Asia and Africa. While mega-cities have managed to capture much of public attention, the new growth will happen in smaller cities and towns that have less resource to react to the scale of the change. Cities are said to offer more favorable background for solving environmental and social problems than rural areas. Urban areas generate income and jobs. With proper governance, cities can deliver health care, education, and other services in a more efficient manner than less densely populated areas since they have the advantages of proximity and scale (Alter 2005). Urban areas also present an opportunity for women’s empowerment and social mobilization. The density of city life can reduce pressure on areas of biodiversity and natural habitats. The main problem for the years to come is to learn how to use the possibilities offered by urbanization. Urban growth due to natural increase is will be realised, but the size and the rate of the increase will vary from region to region. One of the most effective ways that can slow down the rates of urban and city growth is to decrease unwanted fertility in both urban and rural areas. Empowering women, lowering poverty, and the provision of good reproductive health services influence preferences of fertility and capacity to meet them. Records indicate that the fertility rates are lower in urban areas as compared to the rural areas around the world. The fact that a majority of people in developing countries is the youth implies that the urban population growth will increase rapidly for some years to come (Deleuze & Guattari 1988). Impoverished urban women are less likely than their well-off counterparts to be accessible to reproductive contraception or health. It is no secret that poor women in urban areas have high fertility rates. Migration acts as a considerable causing agent to urbanization. Many individuals move to urban areas in search of economic and social opportunity. Conflicts and environmental degradation may also drive people off the land. In most cases, people who leave rural areas to find better lives in urban areas have no alternative but to settle in slums and shantytowns. They do not access decent sanitation and housing, education, and health care; in effect, people are trading rural for urban poverty. Characteristics of urban life Most of the features shared by many cities may not be exclusive to urban settlements or cities. Things like wide streets, housing, big buildings, or social diversity are also found in rural areas and other non-urban settlements. There are three features of cities that seem to be true about all cities. The three features are found in all cities, absent in non-urban areas and have a big impact on cities’ life. The three features are namely neighborhoods, elites and urban services (Adams 1966). Neighborhoods The neighborhood is one of the few universals of urban areas. Neighborhoods are focused on key characteristics such as a temple, plaza, or a water-source. In a nation such as Nepal, for example, the city of Bhaktapur’s is founded around open plazas. The plazas normally have water sources. Additionally, every neighborhood has some shrines. Main features such as these give neighborhoods a central point of focus for people to interact on a daily basis. Elites Elites are the third candidate for an urban universal. There are also rural-based elites and those elites who have multiple residences. Some of the elites live in the city while exerting an influence over the lifestyle of the non-elites. While elites played a critical role in ancient cities and other urban areas, there has been little comparative research concerning elites around the world. Archaeologists identify elites by their houses size. In most cities, the elites have specific areas set aside by the government for them. The prices of land and houses in such places are normally very high. In addition, the security of these areas has been always better in comparison to the security of the low people. Urban Services Urban services are other major universal of the urban. When people dwell together in urban areas or cities, they may not meet all of their basic social needs in the manner that rural dwellers in the villages can. They also take on other needs that need to be met in the city. The person has to provide basic services that include infrastructure (roads, water), commercial outlets, education, ritual, and places of gathering. In today’s cities, governments give most of these urban services. In the medieval cities, many of these services came from church groups, guilds, and private citizens. The shrines and small plazas of Bhaktapur, Nepal are good examples of neighborhood services in the city. Facilities at the level of neighborhood can be distributed in cities. Cities have high-level service facilities. It implies facilities that are large and serve many people, though they are not many (Spradley 1970). Causes of urban and city growth The tendency towards urban and city growth, both as a proportion of the population and in absolute terms, is influenced by differing patterns of mortality, fertility, and migration. The following are the main causes of urban and city growth: Natural increase The main cause of urban population growth is an excess of births over deaths, simply known as natural increase. In most cases, urban fertility is lower than rural fertility, though this may vary from region to region. The continent of Asia shows a difference from that of Latin America and Africa. Population growth rates increase in the rural areas helps increase migration: the majority of the migrants are at a child bearing age, and their offspring is added to the population of the city. It is not yet clear whether the migrants fertility follows the model of their foundation or that of their target. It is known that migrants can adapt their new neighbors productiveness behavior: natives of urban have the lowest fertility rate, then migrants from rural to urban than migrants of urban to rural areas, with natives of rural having the highest of them all. The differences are more noticed than they were ten years ago when towns were less advanced in the demographic transition process. Differences experienced in regions are because of circumstances and demographic change. Africas urban migrants are separated from their husbands or wives: their fertility is low in the first two years, which then increase until the general rate is the same as that of an urban norm after a few years. In Latin America, the initial pattern remained stable over time at a lower level. Recent analysis of Africa suggests that its growth rate will remain the same because of better employment and availability of health services in urban regions. Women living in cities tend to marry late, breast-feed babies less and may abstain from sexual contact for a short time after giving birth. The women in the city also have a better access to family planning services and reproductive health and use contraception more possible. There are wide variations between different people depending on economic and social opportunity, cultural background, education levels, aspirations and service access. Urban and rural areas differ in both fertility and mortality. Urban areas have lower levels of mortality in comparison to rural areas. Mortality in poorer urban neighborhoods can be as high as those in rural areas Migration Migration plays a great role in the growth of towns and urban areas. A decision made by a family to move is always a complex one, pushed by unfavorable circumstances at home and beckoned by attractive prospects in the city. The mix changes from place to place and time to time. The influence of factors varies from family to family, especially the size and composition. In those parts of the world prone to natural disasters, political instability or wars, many people become refugees in their own countries, moving frequently to cities from unsecure countryside. In these cases "push" factors may dominate as the motivation to migrate, though the "pull" of urban areas may decide the destination. The following are reasons why people migrate: Low barriers to migration-Barriers such as accessibility and distance are reduced by better transport and roads. Lower barriers also encourage circular or seasonal migration. Networks of relatives or friends reduce social barriers; they provide familiarity, support and encouragement for the would-be migrant. Controls such as rationing, taxes, policing, and pass systems contribute towards slowing migration; though the controls may be avoided when the motivation is strong. Freedom of movement contributes towards increasing migration though the movement is likely to be short-term if it is free. Amenities and Services are known to be better in the city. Educational opportunities and health services are of higher quality and more accessible. Urban and city life offers the prospect of liberty from carrying water and gathering wood, though many migrants are disappointed. Life in shantytowns and slums is as arduous, and services are no better if not worse than the rural areas. Air and water pollution, the risk of disease from insufficient sanitation and overcrowding of people and houses may even be worse. Expectation of jobs-The main reason for urban migration has been understood as the longing for a higher wage or an expectation for employment. It is recognized that the informal sector accounts for a big portion of employment and urban areas employment growth. The projection of work and earnings in the informal sector are easy to define at a distance, this means that it is not easy to account for the continued inflow in this manner. Better and more varied chances for people who are educated have a reflection in higher migration rates among the groups, particularly concerning men. Deterioration of rural life- The rapid population growth experienced among low-income people in rural areas has contributed towards putting pressure on land, water and fuel. The pressures may face intensification by intensive agriculture, traditional tenure rights of common land decline and policies that reduce the urge for labor and the possibility of self- sufficiency. The new developments can loosen social cohesion. Additionally, pollution and degradation of resources decrease the quality of rural life, resulting in migration to the cities. International Migration Although international migration is dwarfed by within borders movements of people, it is also increasing. About half of the people dwelling outside their countries of birth live in developing countries. The figure includes the number of refugees around the world. International migration consists of both permanent migration and temporary or labor migration. The temporal migration may be for a long period, even decades. When people migrate permanently, it implies that they may never go again to their countries’ of origin. It means a person has changed citizenship. In modern days, most refugees who moved as a result of political instability have managed to acquire citizenship of other countries (Tönnies 1963). People migrate to the cities while expecting a better life for their families. Income disparities within and among regions are the main motivating factor, and so are migration and labor policies of countries that send and receive these people. Political instability drives migration within countries and across borders. Environmental degradation that includes the loss of forests, farmland, and pasture, compels people to go away from their homes. Migration of educated young persons from developing countries in order to fill gaps existing in the workforces of countries that are industrialized is the main feature of the development in recent times. In receiving countries, infrastructure and industries are built and maintained by migrant labor in some situations (Durkheim 1963). Developed countries’ investment in infrastructure, education and health in developing countries help foster a warm relationship in managing pressures of migration and help to improve the fruitful capabilities of migrants and people remaining at home. Younger adults have a higher chance of migrating than older people. Women contribute to almost half of the migrant population. Policies of family reunification of receiving countries are the main factor that influences migration by women. Women are increasingly more likely to migrate in search of jobs. Women may end up in a low-status, production of low-wage and service jobs. They are also vulnerable to abuse and exploitation that includes sexual abuse. Urban growth theories Urban Growth Theories help to explain the spatial, internal demographic and economic growth of urban areas and cities. The three features of the growth of cities are not entirely separable, they are interlinked. These theories explained how activities of human beings have influenced the growth of cities and urban areas. The changing habits of people have resulted in the development of many urban areas around the globe. The sector theory Homer Hoyt accepted the presence of a central business district (CBD). In 1939, he argued that zones increase outward from the CBD along highways, railroads, and different transportation arteries (Childe 1950). Hoyt used Chicago as an example. An upper class suburban sector evolved away from the town along Lake Michigan shoreline north of the CBD, while industry managed to extend southward in segments that went along railroad lines. Hoyt observed that it was something common for households that had low income to be near railroads, and commercial organizations to be along business ways. Hoyt recognized that transportation routes towards the urban area, including sea ports, railroads, and tram lines, represented a greater access. He theorized that many cities grew in wedge-shaped patterns emanating from the CBD and centering on main transportation routes. A higher-level access to the city means higher land values. It means that commercial functions would remain in the Central Business District, but manufacturing functions could expand in a wedge neighboring transportation routes. Inhabited functions could grow in patterns that were wedge-shaped with an area of low-income housing neighboring industrial/manufacturing sectors while sectors of the middle- income and high-income households were located far away from the functions. Multiple Nuclei Model Harris and Ullman forwarded multiple nuclei model. The model was because many towns and large cities grew in a nuclei way rather than around the CBD. Some of the nuclei are settlements that pre-existed. Other cities arose from external economies and urbanization. Unique land-use zones grew since some activities could repel each other. High-quality houses do not arise near industrial areas since other activities cannot meet the high costs of desired locations. Industrial areas develop in uptown locations since they need easy access and remote business districts can develop due to the same reason. As multiple nuclei enlarge, transportation centers, which include airports, are constructed allowing establishments of industries with reduced transportation costs. The transportation centers have negative externalities, which include lower land values and noise pollution, making land near the hub cheaper. Other facilities such as hotels are constructed near railways and airports since people who travel would want to stay near the hub of travel. Housing will develop in wedges getting more expensive, the farther it appears from the CBD. This model can explain many of the cities in developing countries. Many people due to their low income would want to settle in areas where transportation will be easy and cheap. Concentrating Zone Theory The Concentric Zone model refers to a model that concerns the internal structure of towns and cities where social groups are arranged in a series of rings. The model was the first one to explain the allocation of social groups in urban areas (Childe 1950). Burgess, R. Park, and R. McKenzie made the model in 1923. The idea that characterized this model argues that cities grow outward from a given point in a series of rings. The ring size may vary, but the order of the rings remains the same. The model argues that the social structure enlarges outwards from the CBD, implying that the lower classes could live near the city center. At the same time, the upper classes live far away from the city center since they can afford to commute. As one goes far from the city, the density decreases. The rent increases as one get far from the city center, and residents are likely to rent houses near the CBD. As one gets far from the CBD, it is likely that one will get condominiums. Indianapolis city is one city that applies to the concentric zone model. In this city, many people have rented near the city center than away from it. The model does not consider physical barriers and gentrification that occurs in cities. One essential component of the model is the link of the social and economic status of homes with distance from the CBD. Burgess argued that the changing spatial outlines of housing areas as a method of "invasion" and "succession.” While the city grows and develops, the CBD exerts pressure on the region surrounding it. Outward expansion of the city center would overrun nearby residential vicinities causing them to enlarge outward. The process continues with each succeeding neighborhood moving far from the CBD (Isin 2003). Burgess suggested that the settlers and low socioeconomic status households occupied interior-city housing. As the CBD expanded outside, and the city grew lower status tenants moved to nearby. The model has a basis on the bid rent curve. It states that the concentric circles have a basis on the sum people will give for the land. The value has a basis on the profits that are accessible from maintaining a commercial activity on the land. The center of this town will have many customers, so it is suitable for business purposes. Conclusion Human activities and movement have contributed immensely towards the growth of cities and other urban areas. It is hugely expected that most part of the world will be urbanized by 2030. Urban development has brought with it several challenges that these areas face. It is critical for countries to ensure that just as cities and urban areas develop services such as water, roads and other social amenities also develop. When many people flock urban areas in search of job opportunities, informal settlements such as slums may easily proliferate. It is important for governments to limit such migrations by ensuring that there are policies that aim towards developing rural areas. When there is an empowerment of people in the rural areas, there will be no cases of rural-urban migration. Human evolution in terms of lifestyle has greatly led to the growth of urban and cities in most parts of the world. References Adams, RM 1966, The Evolution of Urban Society, Aldine, Chicago. Alter, R 2005, Imagined Cities, Yale University Press, New Haven. Childe, VG 1950, The urban revolution. Town Planning Review, 21, pp. 3–17. Deleuze, G & Guattari, F 1988, A thousand plateaus, Athlone, London. Durkheim, E 1963, Modern Social Pathology. In Emile Durkheim. Selections from his work, with an Introduction & commentaries by George Simpson: 69-84. Thomas Y.Crowell, NY Isin, EF 2003, Historical sociology of the city. In Delanty, Gerard and Isin, Engin F.eds. Handbook of historical sociology, Sage, London, UK, pp. 313-325. Available from http://oro.open.ac.uk/15374/1/Isin_2003a.pdf Spradley, JP 1970, You Owe Yourself a Drunk: An Ethnogra-phy of Urban Nomads, Little, Brown and Co., Boston. Tönnies, F 1963, [1887] Community and Society, C. P. Loomis, trans. and ed., Harper and Row, New York.. Read More