Origin of the Marriage Rituals, Traditions, and Practices of Jewish Weddings - Research Paper Example

Analysis of the Origin of the marriage rituals, traditions, practices of Jewish weddings in Orthodox communities (Research paper) LIST OF CONTENTS Page no. 1. Introduction 3 2. The Jewish view of marriage 3 3. An overview of Jewish wedding rituals 4 4. 1. Pre-wedding reception of the bride- Shmorg and Bedeken 6 5. The wedding canopy- Chuppah 6 6. 1. The Prime Rituals of a Jewish Wedding 7 6.1. Erusin- The Engagement Ceremony 8 6.2. The Ring Ceremony 8 6.3. The Ketubah Reading 9 6.4. Nesuin - The Marriage Ceremony 10 6.5. The Ceremony of Breaking the Glass 11 7. The Final Rituals- the Retreat and Yichud 12 8. The Post-Wedding Reception 13 9. The Week After the Wedding 13 10. Conclusion 14 References 15 1. Introduction Marriage is a social institution in which two individuals are united in holy matrimony. The institution of marriage, as we see it today, has grown over many centuries. Traditionally viewed as the union of a man and a woman, this concept has become more complex today owing to the increased sophistication and civilisation of modern societies. Thoroughly immersed in customs, traditions, religion and civil regulations, many of the conventional rites have perished over time to yield place for new ones. The rituals, traditions and practices of marriage differ greatly across diverse cultures, religions, countries, ethnic communities and social strata. Majority of the traditional marriage ceremonies comprise an exchange of nuptial vows by the couple, offering of gifts and a public announcement of the marriage by an authority figure. Some other commonly incorporated elements in a wedding ceremony are traditional music, recital of poetry, chanting of prayers or readings from religious texts. All of these marriage customs have their roots firmly embedded in the beliefs and customs of the society in which they are conceived. Studying the origin of these age-old practices yields a great deal of exposure as well as delight. This paper seeks to unearth the roots behind many such beliefs through an analysis of the origin of the marriage rituals, traditions, practices of Jewish weddings in Orthodox communities. 2. The Jewish View of Marriage In Judaism, marriage is regarded as the ultimate state of mankind and a man without a wife or a woman without a husband are regarded as incomplete. As Isaac Klein quotes from Leviticus 34a in his book "A man who does not marry is not a complete person." (Klein, 1979, p. 381) It is also believed that "Any man who has no wife lives without joy, without blessing, and without goodness." (Garland, 2003, p.276) In Jewish literature, the term that denotes marriage is “kiddushin”, which in English means "sanctification". (Bernan, 2014) Judaism views marriage as a divine blessing and a consecration of life. Marriage is perceived as a mystical tie between two people and as the accomplishment of Gods decree. Marriage is viewed as the means of fulfilling the first commandment: "Be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth." (Gen. 1:28; quoted in Geffen, 1993, p. 12) Judaism believes that marriage is intended to serve the dual purposes of companionship and procreation. According to Jewish belief, the sole purpose for the creation of woman is that "It is not good for a man to be alone." (Genesis 2:18; quoted in Epstein, 2004, p. 405) Apart from assigning idyllic, sacred and purposeful values to the institution of marriage, Judaism also considers marriage as a contractual agreement between two individuals who have legal rights and responsibilities. This concept is reflected in the Jewish practice of “Ketubah” or the marriage contract. (Bernan, 2014) Owing to the historic oppression of Jews by other nations for ages, the Jews had dispersed all through the world. Yet they have succeeded in preserving their religious and cultural heritage for thousands of years. Jewish survival over the generations can be attributed to the religion’s high degree of reverence for the institution of marriage and the ensuing stability of the family tradition. (Katz, 2014) 3. An Overview of Jewish Wedding Rituals As is true for all religions of the world, marriage in Judaism is a great reason for celebration. A wedding is the one of the key founding stones of the Jewish life cycle. The various rules and customs of the wedding may differ across the different ethnic sects of Judaism, namely the Ashkenazi Jews of European origin and the Sephardi Jews of Middle Eastern origin. The differences in their ethnic backgrounds often result in their different styles of marriage rituals. However, there are still certain aspects that are common to both the sects. Jewish marriages are generally arranged by the parents of the groom and the bride, with assistance from a matchmaker. Though this practice has withered with the passage of time, it is still followed in some orthodox communities. The wedding rituals begin with a custom known as Tenaim, as soon as the couple’s engagement is declared. (Bernan, 2014) On this occasion, the Jews commemorate the loss of their unforgettable heritage. They express their grief upon their past loss by breaking a glass plate, thus symbolising the demolition of the Holy Temple of Jerusalem. This theme is again recurrently manifested in various rituals during the wedding. (Westbrook, 2009) Traditionally Jewish literature terms marriage as kiddushin, which means "sanctification" or "dedication". The term indicates that marriage is not just a social institution or contractual settlement, but a spiritual bonding and more importantly the execution of a mitzvah or a Divine dictum. It entails that the couple have now entered into an exclusive relationship, so much so that they are now "one soul in two bodies." Thus, marriage involves the complete commitment of the bride and groom to each other in Judaism. (Becher, 2014) The first stage of a traditional Jewish marriage is the shidduch or “matchmaking”. (Bernan, 2014) Finding a life partner is a well-thought and organised process and helps to ensure that ones choice of life partner is based on the parameters of intellect, emotion and physical attraction. When the young couple have met and their families have consented to the marriage, the occasion is announced with a small reception, called a vort. (Bernan, 2014) The bride and the groom, called the chosson and kallah, abstain from seeing each other for one week before the wedding. On the day of the wedding, the first step is the signing of the ketubah or marriage contract. This contract, written in Aramaic and designed by the Mishnaic law, is believed to have originated in the Biblical times. This legally binding agreement, enlisting the husbands responsibilities to his wife, is signed by the groom and two witnesses. The ketuvah is followed by the ritual of bedekin or "veiling" in which the groom covers the bride’s face with her veil. This also serves the legal purpose of the groom’s identification of the bride before the final wedding. The next step is known as the chuppah or "canopy" wherein an adorned piece of fabric is held high up as a symbolic abode for the new couple. Beneath the chuppah, the groom puts a gold ring on the bride’s finger and performs his wedding vows in front of two witnesses. This is followed by the sheva brachos or “seven blessings” that are recited over a full cup of wine, by the priest or religious leader. Subsequent to the marriage, the newly-wed couple are escorted by the guests to the cheder yichud or "the room of privacy", where they spend some moments of intimacy in a locked room together as a symbolic consummation of their marriage. Their entry into the room is observed by the two witnesses of the marriage so as to suffice a legal requirement of the act of marriage. (Bernan, 2014; Becher, 2014) 4. Pre-wedding Reception of the Bride- ‘Shmorg’ and ‘Bedeken’ During the pre-wedding reception, the bride is seated on a lofty, throne-like chair which is lavishly decorated for the occasion. She greets the guests from her chair, who are then led to the “shmorg” or the lavish feast. The feast offers a wide range of delicacies such as “ice sculptures, string quartets, stuffed crepe creators, pasta stations, fresh pastrami carving tables”. (Bernan, 2014) This custom owes its origin to the feast served by Rebecca’s family to Eliezer before Rebecca and Isaac’s marriage. (Genesis 24:54, quoted in Bible Gateway website) The feast set up may however differ depending upon the budget and preference of the families. After the ketubah is signed, the groom covers the face of his bride with a veil in a ceremony called bedeken. This custom suggests that the groom by covering his bride’s face expresses that his love for her goes beyond physical beauty. Some Jews believe that the veiled bride is analogous to Rebecca who covered her face with her veil when she first came across Isaac, her would-be-husband. The veil is not only a vow of chastity, but also a symbol of self-esteem and strength. Judaism assigns women the status of the captains of the household. The gesture of hiding her face symbolises the guarding of her family from spiritual and emotional turmoil. Another line of believers consider the veiled bride as representative of the Children of Israel who are equated to a “beautiful girl without eyes” by Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan. (Jewish Celebrations website) Just as the Jewish people follow God without any questions, a marriage is deemed to be blessed only if the bride has a similar blind faith in her husband. The veil is regarded as a proclamation of the bride’s faith in her husband since she enters a marriage without having a look at her ring or evaluating the material wealth of her husband. (Bernan, 2014) After the veiling ceremony, the parents and parents-in-law and bless the bride. The blessing may be in the form of either personal wishes or the words said to Rebecca during her marriage. Sometimes a more traditional form blessing is conveyed that invokes the four matriarchs: “Yesimcha Elokim k’Sarah, Rivka, Rachel, V’Leah.” meaning “May God make you like Sara, Rebecca, Rachel and Leah.” (Grinvald, 2000, p. 139) 5. The Wedding Canopy- ‘Chuppah’ It is a popular Jewish belief that God had set up ten chuppot on the occasion of Adam and Eve’s wedding. Also ten is believed to be a celestial number referring to the ten divine forms in which God relates to man’s world. This belief gave rise to the custom of the chuppah which eventually became a potent symbol of the entire Jewish wedding ceremony. The word chuppah owes its roots to the word “chafah” which means to hide or cover and the word “chafaf” which means to protect. (Becher, 2014) The four sides of the chuppah epitomize the first home shared by a new couple and signifies the couple’s change in marital status. It demarcates the couple’s newly-formed relationship with each other from their existing connections with the rest of the people. The ritual of chuppah also draws from the Jewish notion that a man takes a woman into his home to mark their marriage. Isaac was the first man to follow this idea: “And Isaac brought her into his mother Sara’s tent, and took Rivka, and she became his wife and he loved her.” (Genesis 24:67; quoted by Bibles, 2013, p. 54) Another dominant concept that contributes to this tradition of chuppah is that in order to be considered married, a man must provide for his wife. This concept is derived from the “Book of Ruth”, wherein Ruth instructs Boaz: “Spread your robe over me for you are a redeeming kinsman.” (Ruth 3:9; quoted by Gold, 2007, p. 33) By complying with Ruth’s request, Boaz accomplished a successful culmination of the marriage ceremony. As opined by some Jewish scholars, the custom of covering is fulfilled when a groom covers his bride’s face with a veil. However, some other scholars demand a larger demonstration of the covering act. This purpose is served by a chuppah. (Gold, 2007) 6. The Prime Rituals of a Jewish Wedding A modern Jewish wedding or Kiddushin is an amalgamation of two separate ceremonies. The first blessing ritual called the Erusin marks the couple’s engagement. This is followed by a second ceremony called Nesuin that involves a Chuppah, reading of the Ketubah, recital of the seven marriage blessings or sheva berachot and breaking of the glass. Traditionally, the bride and groom fast on the day of their wedding. The act of fasting symbolises purification of the soul by getting rid of all sins before they come to their marriage. This practice is derived from the Jewish tradition of fasting on Yom Kippur or the Day of Atonement in order to get rid of one’s sins and start anew with a clean soul. (Bernan 2014) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 6.1. Erusin- The Engagement Ceremony The word ‘Erusin’ has originated from the root ‘asar’ which means ‘to be bound’. The ceremony thus suggests that the couple have created a bond for life with each other and set out to plan their future life together. The origin of the word can also be traced back to the root ‘aras’ which means ‘to speak for’. This indicates that following the Erusin ceremony, the couple is already spoken for and committed to marry each other. The Erusin begins with the Kiddush ceremony which is the “blessing of the rabbi” to the newly married couple over a “cup of wine”. After the blessing the rabbi hands over the cup to the groom who sips wine from it. Then he lifts the cup to the bride who also drinks from the cup. Drinking wine from the same cup is a symbol of the shared life they are going to lead from then onward. (Becher, 2014) The tradition of seeking God’s blessing over a cup of wine has its origins in the Psalms. In his attempt to pay off the debt of God’s kindness and grace, King David had uttered: “I will raise a cup [because] of salvation, and call in God’s name” (Psalms 116:13; quoted in Horton, 2002, p. 192). Kiddush is the most fundamental ceremony of a Jewish wedding. It is followed by a recital of the Erusin blessing. The exact text of the recital may be different, but a typical blessing says: “We bless you God, Our God, Sovereign of the Universe, who has commanded us regarding sexual propriety, forbidding to us those who are merely betrothed, but permitting to us those who are married through Chuppah and Kiddushin. We bless you, God, who has sanctified us with Chuppah and Kiddushin.” (Fomin, 2011, p. 7) The Erusin comes to an end with the groom offering a ring to his bride. The ring denotes the bride’s acceptance of the marriage proposal. (Horton, 2002; Fomin, 2011) 6.2. The Ring Ceremony The ring forms an exquisite element in a formal wedding ceremony of the Jews. Traditionally, the acceptance of the wedding ring by a bride suggests her agreeing to the terms of the ketubah. It also symbolises a change of personal status of the bride. The shape of the ring suggests endlessness, thereby signifying that the love between a husband and a wife should be never-ending and boundless. The presentation of the ring, in a way, stands for the handover of the right to manage and control the husband’s household to the wife. This alludes to the handover of the royal ring to Joseph when he was appointed as the Pharaoh’s minister of finance. (Genesis 41:42; quoted in Nussbaum, 1997, p. 31) It also echoes the Purim saga, in which Achasheverosh handed over his royal signet ring to Haman to issue him the authority to destroy the Jewish people and then to Esther to assign her the authority to issue laws (Book of Esther 3:10, 8:2; quoted in Grossman and reiss, n.d.). The popular Jewish notion of gender entails that men and women possess completely different spiritual powers. Marriage leads to the sharing of these powers. The act of a bride circling her groom symbolises the sharing of her spiritual characteristics with her husband. Besides, according to some customs, men wear a tallit after their marriage as a tangible mark of the spiritual characteristics attained in marriage. Similarly, women wear their wedding rings, as a concrete token of the new sanctity that they have received from their husbands. As far as the material for the ring is concerned, gold is a traditional choice. This is not only because it is the most valuable metal, but also because it is believed that gold is found in the Garden of Eden deep within one of its four rivers. This is one of the many aspects of the Jewish wedding ceremony that is analogous to the Genesis account of the world’s creation to indicate the twosome’s role as creators (Genesis 2:11-12; quoted in Chappell, 2004, p. 11).  The shape of the ring is of utmost importance in a Jewish wedding. The ring must be plain, in the form of a perfect and smooth circle, devoid of any breaks or decorative stones. The perfect roundness of a ring foretells the hope for a prosperous married life. (Chappell, 2004) 6.3. The Ketubah Reading The reading of the ketubah marks a formal demarcation between the Erusin ceremony and the Kiddushin ceremony. As professed by Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki (1040-1105), this custom intends to remind the groom of his duties and responsibilities towards his wife. The essence of a Jewish marriage lies in the statement “Havei Lee L’Eento” which means “Be my wife in accord with the laws of Moses and Israel”. This ancient legal principle forms the basis for all Jewish marital laws and rituals. (Bernan 2014s) Judaism lays down three major ways in which a marriage can be executed- through money or some object of monetary value, through a contract and through sexual interaction. The performance of any of these three actions with the intent to marry may count as an act of marriage. (Mishna, Kiddushin 1:1; from Sicker, 2007) However, sex was later withdrawn from the status of a marriage-making act. The word ketubah was coined in the first century by Rabbi Simon ben Shetach (c. 100 B.C.E.) to provide for the economic security of a woman by initiating the system of ketubah settlement in case of a divorce or widowhood. Before the implementation of the ketubah system, husbands could easily dismiss their wives through a simple plea of divorce. According to the Talmud (Yebamot 89a) the ketubah was put into practice so that the husbands shall not regard it easy to divorce their wives. (The divorce settlement amounts are deliberately kept high enough to discourage the practice of divorce by men. The phrase “Havei Lee L’Eento” sets the adherence to Torah law as a precondition for collecting the ketubah compensation. (Neusner, 1987) 6.4. Nesuin - The Marriage Ceremony The term Nesuin refers to the formal marriage ceremony of the Jews. The Nesuin opens with a blessing session over a full cup of wine known as the sheva berachot and concludes with the breaking of the glass ceremony. The term ‘Nesuin’ comes from the word ‘nasoh’ meaning “to accompany” and signifies the bride’s being accompanied to the groom’s house. The other meaning of Nesuin is to “take” or “lift” and this refers the elevation of the status of the couple as a result of marriage. The individuals enter marriage as single, independent persons and emerge from it as a couple or a new family. The number seven is of supreme mystic significance in a Jewish wedding. An evidence of this is the seven cups of wine that are raised during the wedding ceremony and the post-wedding celebrations. This is drawn from the belief that God had created the world in seven days. Hence the groom and the bride are also believed to be symbolically building the walls of their new home during the wedding. (Westbrook, 2009) Each marriage is perceived as the creation of a new world in Judaism. The Jewish veneration of marriage is most strongly expressed in the Nesuin ceremony through the Sheva Brachot or the seven marital blessings. The seven blessings are either recited by a rabbi or in some cases, ushered by the people whom the families wish to pay their respects to. The seven blessings of Sheva Brachot are analogous to the six days of Creation and the seventh day of Sabbath. Out of the seven marital blessings, five blessings uphold the importance of creation. The blessings begin with the praise of God for his creation of the world and human beings. It signifies the hope that the new couple will model their new life upon the original divine pair of Adam and Eve. Another significance of the blessings lies in the invocation of a prayer for the revival and reconstruction of Jerusalem and its central Temple. As soon as the last blessing is delivered, the new couple drinks wine from the cup. (Becher, 2014) 6.5. The Ceremony of Breaking the Glass After having shared a cup of wine with his bride, the groom crushes a glass with his feet. This ritual can be traced back to the Talmudic era. Breaking of the glass expresses the sorrow of Jewish exile and remorse of the loss of the past glory by providing an analogy with the destruction of the central Temple of Jerusalem in 568 C.E. by the Babylonian armies. The act is often accompanied by a recital of the verse, "If I forget thee O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget its cunning: If I do not raise thee over my own joy, let my tongue cleave to the roof of my mouth" (Psalms 137; quoted in Kayte, 2009, p.141). Immediately after the breaking of the glass, the guests often convey their good wishes by crying "Mazaltov! Mazaltov!" The traditional practice implies the intention of keeping Jerusalem and Israel alive in one’s mind even at the occasion of enjoyment. It serves as a reminder for all present at the joyous occasion of wedding not to forget their solemn duties towards God. (Kayte, 2009) It is believed that the grooms in King Solomon’s period used to enter the Holy Temple at Jerusalem through a glass doorway. According to Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan, in order to placate God’s rage at the Jews on their creation of a golden calf, Moses crushed the first set of Ten Commandments. Thus the glass- breaking tradition is an extension of the Mt. Sinai theme throughout the wedding ceremony. Breaking a glass is believed to diffuse any impending doom lined up for the newly-weds. Moreover, it was mentioned in the Gemarah that Mar, the son of Ravina, and Rav Ashi, in his attempt to calm down the boisterous gathering, purposefully broke an expensive glass utensil at his children’s wedding. The aim was to inhibit the careless gaiety and join the grieving for the loss of the Temple in Jerusalem. Subsequent to this reference in the Gemarah, this custom of breaking a glass at the end of a wedding ceremony gained popularity in the 1100’s. (Marcus, 2004) 7. The Final Rituals- the Retreat and Yichud After the completion of the wedding ceremony at the Chuppah, all guests and relatives greet and congratulate the bride and the groom by saying “Mazel Tov”. As the couple retreat from the chuppah and walk on the passageway, the guests shower rice grains on the couple, along with the tunes of Jewish wedding music playing in the background. The rice grains are a symbol of fertility. The list of Holy Land produce stated in the Bible also includes a mention of grains: “A land of wheat, barley, grapes, figs and pomegranates. A land of olive oil and [date] honey” (Rubin, 2002, p. 87) The Jews in Eastern Europe were believed to use wheat grains for this custom, due to the easier availability of wheat. (Bernan, 2014) The newly married couple are then escorted by the guests to the cheder yichud or "the room of privacy." They are now supposed to stay alone in a locked room together as a mark of the intimate relationship shared by a married couple. During the Yichud, the couple traditionally feast on the nutritious meal of chicken soup, whose golden colour is believed to herald a successful marriage. Some other commonly used yichud room delicacies are honey, cheese, eggs and chicken. The word Yichud literally means “becoming one”. Spending time alone with each other after the wedding ceremony in a private room denotes their newly- attained status of a married couple. This is the first time, according to the Jewish tradition, when the new husband and wife can be entirely alone with one another. However, many Jewish legal experts believe that this very act of the bride and the groom staying alone together in a closed room, verified by the two witnesses of the marriage, is a legal requisite for the deed of marriage. (Bernan, 2014) 8. The Post-Wedding Reception Subsequent to the wedding, the reception is held in a hotel or a ceremony hall, depending on the number of guests, the budget and the specific requirements of the couple. The formats of the reception party and the catering designs differ as per the religious beliefs of the families. In the orthodox communities, the male and female guests are not allowed to dance together, but in separate halls. But in modern families, mixed dancing is permitted. Ashkenazi Jews generally prefer regular main course items such as roasted chicken, vegetables and potatoes. Sephardis, on the other hand, prefer spicy chicken, lamb and rice. Other elements that are common to almost all Jewish reception parties are dancing to traditional Jewish songs, elaborate speeches by the groom and the bride’s father, and gifts offered to the guests. The religious rituals at the reception party include the “blessing over the Challah bread” and the seven blessings by seven guests made to the bride and the groom. With this final ceremony, the formal rituals of marriage come to an end. The newly-wed couple then go on their honeymoon in order to take pleasure in their initial special moments of togetherness as husband and wife. (Bernan, 2014) 9. The Week After the Wedding The wedding is followed by feasts for six days in order to honour the new status of the couple in society. This tradition echoes the one-week long wedding celebration alluded to in the Genesis. Jacob, who was supposed to marry Rachel, was misled by Laban into marrying his younger daughter Leah. After a week, however, Laban offered to rectify his misdeed by arranging another wedding ceremony for Rachel and Jacob. Jacob acknowledged Laban’s offer post marriage celebration with Leah, he had married Rachel. (Genesis 29:27; quoted in Chase, 2009) In Jewish view, the new couple is seen as the creators of the future of Jewish community. Hence the celebrations after the wedding are organised to mark their welcome into their new communal life. This period of post-wedding festivity is termed as Sheva Brachot and it signifies the repetition of the seven marital blessings at the occasion of each festive meal. (Chase, 2009) 10. Conclusion Traditionally, marriage is regarded as a remarkably simple affair under the tenets of Jewish law. Marriage comprises the twin acts of the bride accepting a meagre token from the groom and the groom uttering the vows of sanctification and marriage, subsequent to the statement of a witness. These rituals alone are sufficient to declare a marriage acceptable, both legally and socially. The remaining customs, such as the chuppah or wedding canopy and the veiling ceremony have evolved over the decades. These customs have not only made the event of a Jewish wedding spectacular, but also added to the beauty and significance of this vital milestone of Jewish life cycle. In the modern times, many of the weddings in Jewish societies have been witnessing a revival or renewal of the age-old customs. Many of the modern couples who have a novel outlook on the concept of a wedding often look forward to execute a nice blend of tradition and modernity in their weddings. The ancient customs are cherished as a memoir of the wonderful history and cultural heritage that they stand for. But the element that keeps them filled with life and vitality is their continued relevance in the present world. The traditional rituals of a Jewish wedding combined with a modern hue is what helps the newly wedded couples to forge their link of continuity with the past and to shape up the beautiful future married life they are about to share. References: Becher, M. (2014) The Jewish Wedding Ceremony. Ohr Somayach International. Retrieved February 7, 2014 from: http://ohr.edu/1087 Berman, R.C. (2014) An Orthodox Perspective. Jewish Celebrations. Retrieved February 7, 2014 from: http://www.jewishcelebrations.com/Wedding/Orthodox/Customs.htm Bibles, H. (2013). Complete Evangelical Parallel Bible, Hendrickson Publishers Chappell, W. (2004). Garden of Eden Found. Author House Chase, R.S. (2009). Making Precious Things Plain, Volume 7: Old Testament Study Guide, Part 1, Genesis to Numbers. Chase Professional Services. Epstein, S. A. (2004). The Medieval family: A place of refuge and sorrow. Medieval Families: Perspectives on Marriage, Household, and Children, 40, p. 405. Fomin, N. (2011). Jewish Wedding Elements. Summer Sisterhood Study. Retrieved February 8, 2014 from: http://www.wordofmessiah.org/uploads/5/2/3/8/5238654/our_heavenly_matchmaker.pdf Garland, D.E. (2003). First Corinthians. USA: Baker Academic Geffen, R. M. (1993). Celebration and Renewal: Rites of Passage in Judaism. Jewish Publication Society Gold, B.Z. (2007). The Life of Jews in Poland Before the Holocaust: A Memoir. U of Nebraska Press Grinvald, Z. (2000). Shaarei Halachah: A Summary of Laws for Jewish Living. Feldheim Publishers Grossman, R.Y. & Reiss, R.Y. (n.d.) Insights into Megillat Esther. The Israel Koschitzky Virtual Beit Midrash. Retrieved February 8, 2014 from: http://vbm-torah.org/purim/purim65-ygyr.htm Horton, M. (2002). Putting Amazing Back into Grace: Embracing the Heart of the Gospel. Baker Books Isaac and Rebekah, Genesis 24 (New International Version). Bible Gateway. Retrieved February 7, 2014 from: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2024 Katz, L. (2014) About Marriage and Weddings in Judaism. About.com Judaism. Retrieved February 10, 2014 from: http://judaism.about.com/od/weddings/a/all_marriage.htm Kayte, L. (2009). Vitebsk. Author House Klein, I. (1979). A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice. USA: KTAV Publishing House. Marcus, I.G. (2004). The Jewish Life Cycle: Rites of Passage from Biblical to Modern Times. University of Washington Press Neusner, J. (1987). The Talmud of the Land of Israel, Volume 21: Yebamot. University of Chicago Press Nussbaum, M.M. (1997). Bible Stories for the Forty Days. Liturgy Training Publications Rubin. Y.D. (2002). Talelei Oros: The Parashah Anthology, Israel: Feldheim Publishers Sicker, M. (2007). An Introduction to Judaic Thought and Rabbinic Literature. Greenwood Publishing Group Westbrook, C. (2009). “Jewish wedding rites”. Religions. BBC website. Retrieved February 9, 2014 from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/rites/weddings_1.shtml Read More