What Makes an Animal an Acceptable Food Item - Essay Example

? WHAT MAKES AN ANIMAL AN ACCEPTABLE FOOD? of due: Introduction Human beings are termed as omnivorous creatures. This classification is founded on the surveillance that the homo-sapiens species consume a wide array of plant and animal foods. Culture, custom, and upbringing are contradicting factors in regard to human dietary practices. In regard to human anatomy and physiology, meat cuisine will be discussed in this paper; the main topic of interest will be “what makes an animal an acceptable food item, why is this interesting to social or biological anthropologists?” Human anatomy and physiology The incisors of humans are flat and spade-like, essential for peeling, snipping and biting soft materials. The canines are neither saw-like nor conical but are flattened, blunt and small and work like incisors. The premolars and molars are squarish, flattened and nodular, essential for compressing, grinding and pulping non-coarse foods. Human teeth are rather large and usually abut against one another. According to evolutionary theory, an omnivore might be anticipated to be a carnivore, which shows some gastrointestinal tract alterations to a herbivorous diet. The human gastrointestinal tract characterizes the anatomical modifications consistent with a herbivorous diet. Humans have brawny lips and a petite opening into the oral cavity (Milton, 1999:15). How humans evolved to consume meat The pattern of meat consumption in human evolution can be classified into four time periods namely opportunistic hunting and scavenging, full-scale hunting, the shift to domesticated food sources and ultimately the reliance on animal tissues with fatty acid composition now associated with harmful health. The patterns of meat acquisition later took various forms as reflected in regional specializations, and exploitation of marine resources derived from fishing using new and innovative strategies of acquiring food. Domestic animal sources in regions like the Middle East used sheep, cattle, goats and later pigs and chicken were linked to food security, clothing and shelter as used in the provision for meat, milk and skin for clothing and housing materials. The warming trend, over-hunting and subsequent extinction of animals led to the appearance of new plants and animals that could now be domesticated (Milton, 1999:37). The ability to cook foods from tough to soft consistencies has led to the reduction in the bony areas of the facial skeletal that supports the teeth in the jaws, reduction in tooth size, less room for dentition resulting in the rise of occlusal abnormalities in humans and tooth decay. Bone size and structure was stronger in hunting and gathering regimes and weaker in agricultural settings (Milton, 1999:14). The trend of conspicuous and excessive red meat consumption in the human diet has seen a decline in health, increased occlusal abnormalities, increased iron deficiency anemia, infections and bone loss. What makes an animal an acceptable food item? According to observations and readings from various studies, culture and religious beliefs makes an animal an acceptable food item. There are certain animals, which can be readily consumed in some nations and not viewed as wrong, but this can be the opposite in other countries (Douglas, 1997: 37). For instance, the Hindu cannot consume cow meat as they view this animal as sacred. Other nations, for instance Americans, consume cow meat and view it as a delicacy. Among the Hebrews classification of edible and inedible foods is discerned in religion towards holiness and integrity (Harris, 1997:66). Eastern religious influences such as Buddhism and Hinduism through their belief systems teach followers to minimize harm towards animals practiced by non-violence and compassion on all living creatures. In other groups, food taboos exist regarding the consumption of animal meat. Examples include monkey consumption in the Guaja community as taboo for pregnant women and their husbands, to adolescent girls for twelve months after their first menses, pre-adolescent boys and girls in order to curtail certain negative behavior. Biblical and Islamic traditions have a gastronomic aversion for pork loosely associated with filth and dirt. Arguments for abstinence from pork include that they eat, lurch and bathe in their filth; their meat carries reasons that hold little water since other domestic animals also eat their feces and have the potential of spreading diseases if under-cooked. This argument is weakened and the new and better inclination which focuses on the environmental, economic and political incentives (Harris, 1997:54). The practice of consumption of dogs and cats in South Korea has elicited criticism and debate over the recent years. The domestication of the dog was intended to provide a ready and accessible source of food. Archeological evidence traces the taming of dogs back 9,500 years (Rath & Assmann, 2010: 27). The dog was particularly domesticated to assist with hunting game, provide protection and act as the guard. Other theories suggest that the animal may have actively chosen to be with human beings in effect domesticating itself in the least; meant to provide ready and accessible supply of food for human consumption. In other parts of the world eating of dogs and cats is highly emotive especially in Europe, North America, among animal rights activists and groups. The practice is viewed with aversion and a reflection of moral corruption. In these countries, cats and dogs are mainly kept as pet animals and have led in international campaigns calling for the ban of dog and cat consumption. South Korea has constantly received negative international media attention out of practice. Dog meat is still served in many ways in the form of dog soup boiled in water as a sausage, roasted meat with historical findings detailing 14 different dog meat recipes (Podberscek, 2009:667). Despite the outrage from the international community and pressure groups dog meat eating seems to be increasing and taken an economic angle, with chains of restaurants, dog meat festivals and a range of makeups based on dog meat being on the increase. Cats, on the other hand, traditionally been kept to catch rats and mice. In innovation, the electronic giant Samsung is developing and promoting animal assisted therapy activities in South Korea to include service like guide dogs for people with impairment, hearing dogs for deaf people, therapeutic horse-riding programs, dog handling and training programs in juvenile and detention centers (Podberscek, 2009:629). Vegetarians have remained marginalized within the New Zealand culture, with limited dining opportunities and are now faced with difficulties in maintaining a vegetarian diet in an over-whelming carnivorous culture. There is a deep affection and emotional connection for animals among vegetarians which has continued to shape their idea about animal responsiveness, suffering hence their decision towards avoidance in consuming products of animals (Potts & While, 2008:635). Meat-eating in New Zealand is therefore, influenced by ethical, compassionate, environmental, spiritual, economic and health-related perspectives (Potts & While, 2008:647). Central role of meat and animal products Meat-eating symbolized class and hierarchy. In western cultures consumption of red meat takes top position representing life whereas other white meats and cereals are considered less rich or feminine. The emphasis on meat-eating in the western countries is often the norm, whereas vegetarianism tends to be treated a deviant practice that requires explanation. The prominence of meat in western diets is disproportionately high compared to its actual nutritional value. According to Joy (2010), meat-eating societies symbolizes, power and strength whereas vegetables are perceived as inferior foods associated with femininity and a freaky weight consciousness. The views represent particularly dietary choices (p. 95). In African, Christian and Islamic settings, it was common to slaughter animals to mark and observe certain rites of passage in, kingship, birth and naming, circumcision and burial ceremonies. This was shown through the killing, marking with blood, burning and offering of the best parts of the meat to the gods to atone, appease or invoke special blessings to those in authority and families (Joy, 2010:102). Of more importance are the medicinal qualities of dog meat a subject of huge interest in East Asia. In the book, ‘Precious Mirror of Korean Medicine’, written by royal physician Hoh Jun and first published in 1613, eating the dog penis helps overcome male impotence and heart meat if eaten will treat depression and rage. Dog meat is classified hot food and actively good for males, as opposed to the female who is expected to be cool and an introvert. Once a dog is killed it is then brought to boil in a stainless steel pressure cooker for up to 6 hours and the resulting liquefied dog then mixed with herbs; is strained into containers and sold in nutritional or body health shops. During the Korean War, it is said that the masses were faced with severe food shortages hence dogs became a valuable food source of protein (Podberscek, 2009:632). In the remote areas of Brazil lives a group of foraging people, Guaja who have an extra-ordinary relationship with monkeys. The Guaja are a Tupi-Guarani speaking group located in the deep forests of western Brazil and who live in bands of between five and fifteen people. They have seven species of monkeys used as food and pets for companionship. Monkeys are a key food source for the Guaja with certain pets taking an almost human status. Infant monkeys are adopted and nurtured as children while others are consumed according to the symbolic cannibalism in their belief system. Monkeys play a key role in the Guaja society, ecology, economy, and religion and kinship system. As children, they enhance the image of female fertility (Cormier, 2002:65). Orphaned monkeys are adopted into the Guaja social system when their mothers are slaughtered for food. The female Guaja takes care of them, maintains constant physical contact, given personal names and a kinship term of address. Several households play host to more monkeys than their human inhabitants. The role of the monkey in enhancing female fertility involves monkeys serving as substitute children; with such monkeys being seen as surrogate children to mitigate the cultural perception of imbalance between male and female fertility. Women who miscarry are given an infant monkey to nurse and those beyond child-bearing age have greater numbers of monkeys than women with dependent children, which relates to Guaja belief about paternity. In turn increases the sexual activity even during pregnancy through women co-habiting with more than one sexual partner (Cormier, 2002:76). Monkeys also play an important role in the socialization of children in girls through learning child-care and hunting skills for boys. Negative consequences resulting from this relationship include aggressive behavior, which begins to emerge among the monkeys and children in the household for reasons of food provision increasing social isolation. Symbolic cannibalism in Guaja belief is not only seen as an act that satisfies hunger, but has also some transformational power to make another Guaja sacred hence making the predator a prey. Identity, transformation, protection and fertility, are recurrent themes in the Guaja social and symbolic existence with monkeys playing a central role in all these domains (Cormier, 2002:82). Why is meat cuisine interesting to social or biological anthropologists? The study of skeletons found in archeological sites depicts the impact of chewing of raw meat on the faces, jaws and skeletal maintenance as seen in the bones and teeth of earlier humans. This information is of great importance to social and biological anthropologists. Skeletal remains from the archeological sites reveal the culture and biological physiology of man. Anthropologists are able to depict what man consumed as per the teeth structure. Meat cuisine is important to anthropologists, in this case biological anthropologists in predicting the current life span of man. In developed and developing countries, the excess reliance of meat with high lipid compositions has led to increased cases of cardiovascular diseases, osteoporosis and other diseases linked to civilization (Milton, 1999:29). Meat cuisine is of great importance to the study of societal norms to social anthropologists. In both, the Christians and Jews food rules are founded on the value of purity, rejection of impure meat food and bounded territory (Fessler & Navarrete, 2003:35). An example is the Arapesh culture where a male can never dine with his mother or sister as it is considered incest. Sexual purity and food purity therefore become synonymous (Hurn, 2002:95). Common themes of sex and profanity in meat have been studied by social anthropologists so as to understand the various cultures. For instance, in the Jewish culture food rules reject certain animals, separate body parts, milk and blood from meat with no distinct restriction to what is laid on the table or altar. Conclusion It is clear that the reason for abstaining from certain meats is upheld more for tradition and identity, social norms, the danger of losing a way of life and culture to other cultures considered less superior, particularly the American culture. There is heightened controversy and debate over the ethics of eating animals and the practice of killing of animals. Meat-eating may not be a necessity for most people living in the developed world. There are those who support meat-eating for scientific, environmental, cultural and religious reasons. Humane meat-eaters abstain from meat from animals reared in ways such as integrated farms. Vegetarians follow strict no-meat diets because of moral concerns involving the rising, treatment and slaughter of animals (Adams, 2009:167). Meat food holds meanings that are symbolic with patterned messages with respect to social relations, hierarchies, boundaries and transactions. There will be different biological and social beliefs attached to foods among different communities. It can be classified in various ways like the analogous gender and relationships to menus and courses. Rules about meat food are a reflection of the social relations, events, ideologies, socio-political boundaries and sexual norms. It bounds common beliefs, the ordered reality of people and how they identify each other to a common existence (Kerry & Ledward, 2002: 58). The existence of meat taboos shapes individual reactions and the prospects of consuming it. Bibliography ADAMS, C. J. (2009). Living among meat eaters: the vegetarians' survival handbook. Brooklyn, NY, Lantern Books. CORMIER, L.A., (2002): Monkey as food, monkey as child: Guaja symbolic cannibalism: Fuentes, A., & L.D. Wolfe, (Eds.), Primates Face To Face. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. DOUGLAS, M., (1997): Deciphering a meal. Food and Culture In: Counihan, C., & P. van Esterik (Eds), Routledge: New York & London. FESSLER, D.M.T., & C.D. NAVARRETE (2003): Meat Is Good To Taboo. Journal of Cognition and Culture. HARRIS, M., (1997): The Abominable Pig. In: Counihan, C., & P. van Esterik (Eds), Food and Culture. Routledge: New York & London. HURN, S., (2012): Food. In Humans and Other Animals. Pluto Press: London. JOY, M. (2010). Why we love dogs, eat pigs, and wear cows: an introduction to carnism : the belief system that enables us to eat some animals and not others. San Francisco, Conari Press. KERRY, J., KERRY, J., & LEDWARD, D. (2002). Meat processing: improving quality. 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