Factors Affecting Food Choices - Essay Example

Culture, Food and Hospitality: Factors Affecting Food Choices. The human race is vastly diverse and varied in habits, beliefs and behaviours; such diversity is exemplified in the various food decisions found among different people of varying cultural backgrounds. Eating is major source of pleasure in daily life and an inseparable aspect of human culture (Birch, 2003,p.75). However, the various factors that determine or affect what we chose to eat at every particular time have been on the receiving end of numerous research studies. Apparently, what people chose to buy and consume depends on a wide array of factors outside individual or personal choices; such factors range from social, economic, through cultural to environmental factors, all of which seem to operate interrelatedly (Kearney et al, 1999,p.219; Buttriss et al, 2004,p.4; Pollard et al, 2002,p.373). However, it could be argued that culture and tradition seem to exert the single strongest influence on an individual's food choices, attitudes and behaviours (Nutrition Update, 2005,p.1). For a start, though, we should take a look at what constitutes 'choice' as it affects food intake and also culture. Buttriss et al (2004) opine that the term 'Food choice' can be seen from several respects, due to the varying definition of the word 'choice'. They further explain that the word 'choice' could subsume any of the following meanings: (i). The action of choosing; preferential determining between things proposed, (ii). The power, right or faculty of choosing (iii). Abundance and variety to choose from or (iv). An alternative (pp.6-7). Conversely, Dindyal and Sanjay (2004) define culture as the set of beliefs or norms that govern the attitudes and behaviours of a set/group of related people. Thus, a cultural group of people are characterised by a shared set of values, assumptions, perceptions and conventions usually based on a common history and language. Thus, food choice can be described as the selection of foods for consumption, which results from competing, reinforcing and interacting influences of a variety of factors (Buttriss et al, 2004). Or to use the words of Pollard et al (2002), "the way in which individuals, in response to social and cultural pressures select, consume and utilise portions of the available food supply" (pp373-374). Cultural practices and beliefs in relation to food are based on the accumulated experiences of millions of individuals over a period of time (Horne et al, 1995,p.441). So, several food habits evolve from these learned experiences, which in turn leads to the development of attitudes towards food, thus making food choices a sort of cultural expression (Pollard et al, 2002,p.374). According to Horne et al (1995) these beliefs and attitudes are further fostered in the culture because individuals benefit from, and make use of, these communal experiences, eliminating the need for personal learning with every new potential food item (p.374). From this arrangement, it is obvious that individual members of every culture rely on cultural norms to categorise what is food and what is not, this, according to Horne et al is one of the major reasons why people from different ethnical and cultural backgrounds hold varying views about what food substance is acceptable, edible or healthy (p.374), they stated the example of American Indians eating monkeys, grubs, bees and head lice, Australian Aborigines relishing insects and some Sri Lankan tribes, rotted wood. Besides what is acceptable as food and what is not, cultural practice also spells what food combination is right and appropriate, what are appropriate times for consumption of different food items and also, method of preparation of the different acceptable food items. For example, among traditional eastern communities, food tends to be prepared for a large number of people and eaten at regular times of the day in contrast to mainstream western cultures where food is prepared less frequently during the day and eaten at less regular times (Dindyal and Sanjay, 2004). Moreover, such food habits are seen as the major reason why cultures and tradition persist so strongly. Pollard et al (2002) argue that cultures and traditional practices can be described as the foundation upon which all food choices are built. They further explain that a major part of the variations that exist in food choices and habits are due to the boundaries laid down by cultures and traditions, since they give us values and beliefs in different foods and eating patterns. These guidelines therefore provide the framework within which an individual's food choice may evolve (p.378). These guidelines or framework is provided in different respects; different cultures for instance, may encourage or frown at the consumption of different food substances, also the consumption of certain food substances at particular times or stages in life, may be deem appropriate, disgusting or dangerous and unhealthy (Dindyal and Sanjay, 2004). Such restrictions or acceptances, as in many cultures, play a major role in food choices observed in the UK (Pollard et al, 2002). Religion is one of the most influential parts of every culture and by extension, food choices. Religious beliefs and norms constitute the major reasons for the restrictions of certain food substances in several cultures, and such beliefs have been observed to be very potent in the food choices made by individuals of different cultural religious backgrounds. For instance, the Hindu and Buddhist consider pork and beef to be unclean, the consumption of these food items is therefore seriously frowned at (Dindyal and Sanjay, 2004). As a result, a large percentage of these religions' adherents would not consider these food items as appropriate for consumption. It is even argued that in some cases, some adherents over-extend such restrictions to every other food item that belong to the same category as the forbidden food. As in the example of pork above, Dindyal and Sanjay, reports that almost 90% of these religions' adherents refuse to eat any form of meat, due to the restriction. Another influence of culture on our eating habits is the familiarity that is built around food items that we come in contact with regularly in the society, and the inherent apprehension of trying out new food substances (Neophobia) in human traits. Thus it is apparent that the influence of culture on the food we chose to eat or ignore is immense and multi-faceted. Economic factors and Food Choices. There is a great deal of available evidences pointing to the major role played by economic status in the diet structure and choice of individuals in the society. Drewnoswki (2002) point out that the current knowledge in public health nutrition is that individual choices, as it concerns food, are indeed limited and restricted, either by virtue of income, education or other socio-economic factors. He further assert that "any discussion of consumer food choices cannot stray too far from the basic premise that food choices tend to follow a socio-economic gradient. In other words, the cost of food is another prime determinant of food choice" (p.33). In support of this assertion, Pollard et al (2002), also states, "the cost of food is a major factor in determining food choice, affecting some groups of the population more than others" (p.377). To put these statements in the right context, it is paramount to explain that cost affects food choices with respect to socio-economic status, education and income level, thus it affects different groups of people in different socio-economic strata of the society differently. For instance, Dindyal and Sanjay (2004) argue that individuals in the low income levels in the society would prefer to buy and eat only essential food materials, such as bread and milk, on limited occasions and from nearby retail shops, where varieties of food items present is even limited, in the first place. Such low-income earner is most likely to consider different varieties of rich and healthy food items as unnecessary luxuries. In contrast, persons in the higher socio-economic strata, with better income level would be able to afford shopping frequently and in major supermarkets, where a lot of options/varieties are available, allowing such an individual to exert a wider realm of food selection and choices. From Drewnoswki's perspective, all through history, economic development has been associated with replacement of coarse grains, such as corn, millet and sorghum, and starchy roots with staple foods like rice and wheat and with selective breeding of domesticated animals (pp.33-34), resulting in increasing food varieties, though with the accompanying cost. However, price, unsurprisingly, has been found to be a major determining factor in the ability and/or desire of individuals in the different socio-economic strata to avail themselves of these varieties in food options (Pollard et al, p.378). They further explain that several studies have shown the disparity in the consumption or desire to consume fruits and vegetables between people in the low-income earners and those in the higher economic strata. The role of the several economic factors on food choices can be explained thus: individuals with poor education and low income see various food items as unnecessary luxuries, since they cannot afford them, even if they would ordinarily have desired such food items. Their food choices are therefore restricted to basic food items needed for the energy requirements of everyday activities. Through continuous exposure to these food items, they are later seen as 'appropriate enough' and over some time, preferred. Habits and belief systems become built around these food items. For instance, Pollard et al (2002) reported a Dutch study carried out by Brug et al 1995, where subjects stated repeatedly that 'they were eating the way they were taught at home in the past and continued eating according to these habits when they left their parents to go live on their own or started their own family' in respect to the consumption of boiled vegetables, salads and fruits (p.375). Also, another study (Mooney, 1990), found that the recommended food choices following the UK national dietary guidelines were more expensive compared to 'preferred' foods among some groups of people, particularly in the lower socio-economic areas. Thus economic factors affect food choices through the inability to select/choose from a wider variety due to economical constraints, restricting selection or food choices to what is affordably available and the familiarity/habits that results from the continuous exposure to these particular food items. The Role Of The Media In Food Choices. According to Pollard et al (2004), consumers in the UK are exposed to a wide range of messages concerning food and sometimes, nutrition and many of the information tend to be contradictory. Information about diet and food options is often available from a wide range of different sources, and the media including television, radio, magazines and newspapers, play important functions in this regards, in the UK. They reported a Pan EU survey that demonstrated that when people need information about making food choices, they go first to magazines, then television, radio and then followed by newspapers, with food packaging, health professionals and government guidelines tailing behind (p.380). Livingstone (2005) noted that the food industry is a major player in the field of advertising and that such food advertising are dominated by breakfast cereals, confectionary, savoury snacks and fast food restaurants, with advertising for staples and fresh foods lagging behind. She puts the annual spend on advertising in the categories of food, soft drinks and chain restaurants at GBP743 million. However, while the advertising of fast food restaurants, snacks and other 'junk' foods are on the increase, there seem to be a decreasing spend on the advertising funds spent on vegetables, fresh foods, staples and other demonstrated healthy food items. According to Pollard et al (p.380) the low branding and advertising of these 'healthy' foods creates the wrong perception in the society and hinders the selection and consumption of these foods. A Scottish study was reported to demonstrate that many individuals have perceptions of fruits and vegetables as being 'boring', 'associated with slimming', 'lacking in taste', and 'old fashioned'. Conversely, designers and advertisers know how to subtly market different food items, attaching certain connotations to them in order to manipulate consumer choices and taste (pp.380-381). Analysis of individual food choices show that snack eating has always been on the increase and most of the snacks consumed are of the designer food and drink category that has been skilfully promoted by clever advertising. In short, the media is shown to exert a manipulating influence on the food choices and habits of the society, towards the ends of those behind the production and marketing of these food items. Livingstone quoted a World Health Organisation report as stating, "food advertising affect food choices and influences dietary habits". Also, Amber (2004) asserts "clearly advertising tends to affect knowledge, preferences and behaviour of its target market since that is the reason for doing it" (p.5). The bottom line is that the media, especially advertising have a way of manipulating people's decision in favour of the particular food item. People tend to see heavily advertised food items, for instance, as 'appropriate' and 'socially acceptable'. The inherent drive in every individual to be accepted and seen as conforming to social norms makes people to prefer such heavily talked about food items at the detriment of what we ordinarily would have liked to eat. Socialisation and Food Choices. Socialisation basically involves the social interactions between different individuals who could be of similar or different cultural backgrounds, though, such interactions is often more pronounced when individuals of different cultural and traditional backgrounds and belief system come in contact frequently. This is usually a factor in immigration to a new a community or country. Anthropologists define acculturation, which includes dietary adaptation, as the exchange of cultural habits that results when groups of people come into continuous contact. Both cultures, as a result, change, but each culture still remains distinct (Nutritional Update, 2005,p.1). For instance, when an immigrant from an eastern country come in contact with the American food culture, the access to abundant food supply could influence a change in food choices in favour of food items higher in protein, fat and/or calories and potentially lower in fruits and vegetables. To buttress the fact, it is stated that recent studies demonstrated that number of years of residence in the United States, for an immigrant, was associated with higher body mass index resulting from dietary acculturation (Nutrition Update, pp.1-2). Pollard et al (2002) further explain, in this respect, that food is a major focus for social interactions, even within people of the same culture. They cited the example of a German study where it was demonstrated that pleasure and satisfaction derived from occasional eating was only partially accounted for by the sensory aspects of the food. The atmosphere, people present and mood were all factors that contributed to the pleasure gained from eating occasions (p.376). Different eating occasions occur in company and eating in this manner has a tendency of determining the amount and types of food consumed. For example, it was explained that subjects in a study carried out by Brug and others did not 'take the trouble' to prepare boiled vegetables and salads if they were eating alone, but if they were preparing food for others, this would encourage them to prepare vegetables for the meal (p.378). This demonstrates that social interactions play a role in the food we decide to eat. Eating alone is always associated with eating anything, especially the most available and easiest to prepare food. However, when interacting or eating with other people, there is the encouragement to go the extra mile in choosing foods considered more appropriate or trying out foods of other cultures, when in contact with people of different norms. In line with this, Pollard et al (2002) assert that social pressures have been especially described in the UK for groups of the population to consume or to avoid certain foods (p.379). Also, they referred to the presence of a 'food hierarchy' or 'food ideology' in the UK society. It is believed that the position a food item holds within this hierarchy, to some extent determines if such a food is consumed. This is especially more pronounced in the higher socio-economic groups. Thus, there could be greater pressures towards consuming foods that are seen as high on the 'food hierarchy'. In a word, when interacting with others from different or similar cultural orientation, we are more influenced towards food items considered appropriate within the society than what we would have preferred when eating alone. Conclusion. "What people can eat is biologically determined; what they eat is quite another matter" (Levins and Lewinton, 1985,p.262). In the human society, despite the vast array of available foods from which people can choose, only a relatively minute portion of the available food is consumed. The factors determining what food is consumed and which is ignored is a complex field of study. Numerous interrelating factors have been shown to affect, in one way or the other, what we chose to eat from the abundant options available. In the course of this paper, some of these factors have been reviewed with a view to understanding the role they play in our choice of food and dietary habits. However, this is far from being exhaustive. The society we find ourselves, the people we interact with, what we see, hear and observe daily and the economic strata we belong to in the community, are all factors that modulate what we choose to eat at every instance. Any attempt at modifying food habits, perhaps, for health concerns, must take all of these factors, and more, into consideration, for any remarkable success to be recorded. 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