Underrepresentation of african americn women in higher education administrative positions - Dissertation Example

? Literature review Review of literature The main purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the poor representation of African American women in higher education administrative posts in public institutions of higher education. In this review, I conducted my research on African American women administrators, ethnographic, leadership, racism in higher education, racism in education, gender bias, administrative practice in higher education, and historically black colleges and universities. A Synopsis of African American women The end Civil War manifested an innovative period for education and occupation for African American women, while the passage of the Land Grant College Act (Morrill Act of 1862) and the accompanying Act of 1890, which entailed the allocation of black American education, marked an innovative commencement for civic higher learning (Chamberlain, 1991). Previously, women and African Americans were basically not included in institutions of higher learning. African American women first obtained entry to institutions of higher learning in the United States when 1837 students where admitted at Oberlin College after Harvard College was developed for the teaching of young men (Chamberlain 1991). This was the starting point for women in official higher learning. Later on, African American women were enrolled to and gained degrees from Oberlin College. Among them was Lucy Session who graduated with a literary degree from Oberlin College. This made her the first black woman to obtain a degree in the United States, and Mary Jane Patterson who graduated with a B.A. degree from the same Oberlin College. She was the first black woman to obtain a bachelor’s degree in the United States. Apart from obtaining degrees, African American women were elected as administrators at higher learning institutions. Coppin was appointed the principal of the Institution for Colored Youth in 1869; this made her the first black woman to head a higher learning institution in the United States (Littlefield, 1997). At the department of Lincoln University, Silone Yates was made the professor and head of the Natural Sciences in 1889 (Littlefield, 1979). During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, a change for African American women was developed. Nevertheless, African American women’s first entry into higher learning institution was not simple. Just the way as, Solomon (1985) illustrated, in the previous nineteenth and beginning of twentieth century, the black university woman was the exclusion of the exceptions in that both white and black required her. Regardless of the opposition, African American women pressed forward for highly developed learning. Thirty black women in 1890 in the United States had obtained degrees, as compared to three hundred Black men and two thousand five hundred white women. According to a research study conducted by Dubois, two hundred and twenty five Black women had gained degrees, sixty five from Oberlin College. From these figures the progress was protracted, although the amount of African American women gaining degrees at higher learning institutions was increasing. At the commencement of the twentieth century, African Americans’ women contribution in higher learning improved. This was a period of expansion for African Americans. The National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP) was developed after the migration of many African Americans (NAACP, 2002). African American women aimed at making social change within the society. They advocated for an increase societal literacy in the African American society and endorse “racial strength.” They kept on becoming the first African American and the first women in most areas of higher learning. During 1920’s, many institutions and association were developed mainly for African American women in higher learning. Bennett College, developed as a coeducational organization in 1873, turned to a university for women (Littlefield, 1997). Similarly, Lucy assembled the first yearly symposium of deans and counsellors for girls in African American schools. These developed the Association of Deans to Girls in African American Schools (Littlefield 1997). The number of African American women getting highly developed degrees from organization of higher learning continued to increase. According to Noble (1988), African American women obtained more university degrees than African American men during the twentieth century with the exemption of the period between 1920 and 1930. During the 1940’s, African American women kept on obtaining degrees, therefore locating the position for unification. Mamie became the first African American woman to obtain a Ph.D. in Psychology in 1943 from Columbia University (Littlefield, 1997). During the 1950s, African Americans kept on setting example in higher learning. Willa became the leader of Bennett College in 1955, making her the initial black woman college leader (Littlefield, 1997). Lucy was involved in the move for the integration of public universities in 1956. Littlefield (1997) distinguished beneath a Supreme Court command and with the support of Ruby; National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People regional director, Lucy registered at Tuscaloosa in the University of Alabama only to be disqualified later by university administrators, who quoted her statements concerning race associations at the school as basis for discharge. In conducting research about African American women in higher learning, I discovered that during the 1920’s throughout the 1950’s there are no statistical data. This is because of clear information. Chamberlain (1991) stated that before World War II, information concerning minorities in higher learning was very few. Nevertheless, it is recognized that African Americans were controlled devastatingly to the in the past black university (Green, 1988). As a result of isolation, African American women were not allowed enlarged access to the preponderance of mainly white higher learning institutions until the middle of 1950’s. Quite a lot of significant proceedings in the 1950’s and 1960 have motivated the contribution of African American women in higher learning. One of the initial steps in obtaining equivalent education for all learners, not considering of race, was a decision made by the Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954 which developed the position for discrimination (Green, 1988). Furthermore, Green noted that, “the 1960’s Civil Rights Movement motivated the importance of institutions of higher learning to register several students, and consequently employ several minority teachers and leaders. One of the first pieces of legislation for women was The Equal Pay Act of 1963 which was associated to sex prejudice. It forbids favouritism in payment of salaries to women and men doing significantly identical work in the same institution. Second was the 1964 Act that prohibited discrimination the basis of colour, national origin, religion or sex. In addition, Noble (1988) stated that, ACT 1964 the Economic Employment twisted new instructive opportunities for blacks. One of the first reimbursements of this law was the fast access of black students into formerly segregated white universities. The means of access of the Act of 1964 civil rights and the development of confirmatory action by decision-making instructions resulted in a change in conscription of African Americans from traditionally black universities and colleges to mostly white universities. Throughout the 1980’s, several African American women operated in managerial capability in universities. Niara Sudarkasa of Lincoln University, Marian Wright Edelman of Spelman and College Board of Trustees Johnetta Cole of Spelman University were all converted into the first African American female leaders of their individual college. From this review, it can be noted that African American women who managed to make their identification in the history of higher learning are few. Though, there are other go after and made participation to higher learning through written materials like articles, books and society involvement. Based on the literature review, it is obvious that the African American woman’s integration into higher learning was slow. Whilst African American women are at the moment in higher learning today as students, teachers, staff members, and leaders, they have experienced several challenges to guarantee their contributions. Challenges Affecting African American Women in Higher Education In the nineteenth to the early twentieth century, an increased right of entry to higher learning for African American women was witnessed. This transformation was as a consequence of the sixties proposal, federal scheme, and cases in high courts allowed more African American women to join higher learning institutions, acting as students, staff of staff, and administrators. Their entry, though, did not make certain equality and equity. These women experienced several challenges associated with balancing career, society commitment, family, and employment and promotion, segregation, racism, tokenism and sexism (Edwards, 1997). From the literature, most African American women are undergoing almost similar challenges. The literature I reviewed reveals that African American women are facing similar issues today. Most of the African American women in higher learning do come from different backgrounds and work in different areas at universities and colleges. Though, they all possess one thing in similarity, which is double jeopardy. This is a term normally used to distinguish the site of African American women and other white women, for the reason that they descend into two subjugated groups (Allen, 1995; Etter-Lewis, 1993; Fleming 1996; Mosley, 1998). According to Collins (1991) the individuality of African American women as a as both a concept like both African American and other women. In that, race and sexual category are important and associated make within the personality of African American women. African American women reveal common knowledge due to the knowledge of both race and sexual category. The two cannot be alienated. If only race or sexual category is used to identify an African American woman’s occurrence, a real illustration cannot be portrayed. Diverse awareness and theories concerning African American women have developed over time. Fleming (1996) states that black women are usually described as strong, dependent, identity - experienced, even domineering alternatively, black women are usually perceived as victims anguish in the double jeopardy of existence as both female and black in a community that is both gender biased and racist. As a consequence of being female and black, African American women are handled in a different ways from African American men, white women and men. African American Women in Higher Education Administration Men have habitually held management positions in higher learning. Previous to the 1970’s, women hardly ever held prescribed positions of inspiration in the management of higher learning, apart from women’s universities and colleges. Chamberlain (1991) states that, during 1970, very few women managers at Ivy League college served in students’ centres. These places were at lower stage within instructive administration. According to Chamberlain (1991) The management positions portion of African American women during this time were dean of students ( women), director of food services, director of library services dean of nursing or dean of home economics. Very few had positions as director of student guidance, registrar, director of alumni affairs or director of student activities. These positions did not direct up to higher strata management. African American women kept on to dwell in an unreasonably low amount of managerial level in higher learning, in contrast to their white female corresponding person. In the past, African American women have been very influential in the creation of higher education learning and educational chances for African Americans and women; though, they remain poorly represented in higher learning administration. This poor representation at management levels in higher learning continues to provide a constant problem for African American women managers. This is because they are moderately a small number of African American women working in management position must experience challenges associated with gender and racism. African American women managers are usually put in dead end positions. These dead end positions are normally in areas like minority affairs, multicultural affairs, and offices with no chances of development. They are commonly put in positions formerly held by very few leaders. Konrad and Feffer (1991), conducted a study about employing women in educational canters, revealed that women were more likely to be employed in positions held by people of their own categories in the past. African American women are usually expected to work as researchers, teachers, community servants and administrators (Sandler, 2006). Though, their cultural values are not considered important in education. Another challenge that African American women, especially administrators, experience in higher leaning is Isolation. Sandler (2006) revealed that, isolation is a particularly relevant issue for African black women, who usually suffer severe isolation as a result their miniscule quantity in higher learning. African American women managers are usually the only woman at higher-ranking levels at several institutions, particularly at mainly white colleges and universities. Challenges have nothing to do with their qualifications, preparation or competency. They have no representation, no counsellor, and little emotional support. They have no one to share their experiences or one to identify with them. The African American female managers must develop her without representation or precedent. Although, African American women have become managers in higher education, their contribution is limited. This has caused several African American women and colleagues, to ask questions regarding why they were employed at principally in white universities (Allen, 1995). One reason is that they were employed because they belong to particular a minority group (Allen, 1995; Edwards, 1997). Gender and Racism in Higher Education African American women experience gender discrimination and racism in several phases of their lives, even at their working stations in higher learning institutions. Harvey (2006) states that, the ivory tower picture of education, so cautiously developed by higher learning institutions, gives the impression that these institutions are expediently removed from the challenging daily concerns that several people and educational institutions uphold. The depiction of non- prejudiced behaviours at establishment of higher education can be misleading. Racism and gender are deceptive and well at higher education institutions. Research studies indicated that higher learning institutions are not as sympathetic of African American managers, particularly women, as they are of African American males, white women and men (Moses, 2009). This means that though gender mainly affects the way of life of women in higher learning institutions, discrimination in terms of race also has an influence. Edwards (1997) conducted a research study to investigate the knowledge of three African American women in higher level leadership posts in higher institution of learning on administration at predominantly white colleges and universities (PWU). This research study was conducted in order to comprehend the disagreement they experience; the extent of disagreement they understanding; and the version they utilize. The research study was carried out as an anthropological and naturalistic and qualitative research. Conclusion The aim of this qualitative research is to explore higher education policies that hinder the progress of African American women who pursue admittance into executive level administrative positions in colleges and universities. The literature review I conducted exposed that African American women, especially administrators, at higher education institutions do experience several challenges. If they are to obtain their management capability, institute of education must be adjusted to their requirements and learn all they can concern African American women and their way of life. They ought to evaluate their different efforts and integrate the knowledge and viewpoint of African American and white women. Therefore, African American women had resemblance in both their individual and educational experiences. Challenges like, sexism, racism, tokenism, and poor representation exaggerated all women. In addition, they were all apprehensive with questions connected with their administration abilities. References Aguirre, A. (2000). Women and minority faculty in the academic workplace: Recruitment, retention, and academic culture. ERIC-HE Digest Series EDO-HE-2000-5. American Council on Education (2002). Summary profile of the American college President: 2001, compared with 1986. Taken from The American college president. 2002 Edition, Chapter 2. 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