The History of Visual Culture - Essay Example

Visual Culture Name Course Name and Code Instructor’s Name Date Introduction According to Britannica dictionary, Culture is defined as behaviour peculiar to Homo sapiens, as well as the objects they use in an integral part of the behaviour. It is an academic subject that studies a combination of cultural studies, anthropology, critical theory, art history and philosophy by mainly focusing on aspects of culture that is based on visual images. In this regard, culture includes language, ideas, codes, customs, beliefs, institutions, tools, techniques, and works of art, rituals, and ceremonies (Dikovitskaya, 2005). Within the contemporary culture, visual culture overlaps with psychoanalytic theory, film studies, gender studies, and the study of television (Rich, 2011). Some sociologists argue that culture is a combination of different disciplines of the society that rival for representation thus making it hard to define. Visual Culture is the study of art history with a singular focus on the cultural meaning of work of art instead of its aesthetic value. The study of visual culture brings to light the predominance of visual forms of media, communication together with information in the postmodern world. Cultures are identified using abbreviations called Cultural Codes (Rich, 2011). A full or complete culture code comprises of a neutral culture code usually written in lowercase, followed by subculture codes written using a combination of case or solely using the uppercase (Sebok 1994). Accordingly, the study of culture brings out three distinct codes: social codes that are mainly presented through language, bodily codes, commodity codes, and behavioural codes. The textual codes mainly used as representational codes and they include; scientific codes, aesthetic codes, genre, rhetoric and stylistic codes, mass media codes (Sebok 1994). Interpretive Codes; these are usually represented by perceptual codes and ideological codes. This paper discusses a range of examples from history of visual culture describing the significance and importance of written and pictorial signs and their interrelatedness as both symbols and icons. Discussion Visual Culture is fundamentally rooted in the European Visual Culture that is strongly anchored on Greek and Roman Visual Culture. It has been eluded that although different communities and societies across the world have dissimilar cultures, all of them have a common visual language. Signs and symbols have been used enormously through the history of visual culture to help in understanding different concepts of culture. Using the Mesoamerican writing system there are various cultures that include Aztecs, Mayas, Olmecs, Zapotecs, Teotihuacanos, Mixterecs, and Tarascans (Lo, 2012). The Mesoamerica is regarded as the only place in indigenous America that writing system was invented and used before the European colonization. The Mesoamerican scripts convey a highly intricate and pictorial form of signs. These signs are often referred to as hieroglyphic because they are pictorial in nature. The Mesoamerican scripts are commonly called glyphs (Lo, 2012). The glyphs resemble real objects like animals, people, and natural features. Human beings and animals, glyphs represent them using portraits; for instance, only the heads are drawn. Human body parts particularly, legs and arms are commonly used in glyphs. The Mesoamerican glyphs are like painted drawings thus are different from the western alphabetic scripts (Lo, 2012). Glyphic elements are were drawn inside the headdress of a ruler’s portrait to represent his name, although in some instances, the leader’s/ruler’s name could be written using artistic representation of words that would make up his name (Lo, 2012). The Aztec and Mixtec manuscripts for instance, the names of people and places are wholly drawn within the pictures themselves. The number system of the Mesoamerican use a bar and dot notation where a dot is a symbol value of one while a bar represented a value of five. Accordingly, the bar and dot notation was used for writing numbers less than twenty. In the event where quantities were more than twenty, different methods were used. The Aztecs for this matter special symbol like a flag to represent twenty, a feather to represent four hundred, and an incense bag represented eight thousand (Lo, 2012). The Maya on the other hand had a complex way of doing things; they had a special signs; the half moon sign represented twenty while larger or bigger numbers they used positional notation similar to the modern Arabic numbers. The Olmecs were the complex urban cultures the Mesoamerican had; their towns and villages were mainly developed in the tropics, the Riverina regions of Mexico. During the pre-classic periods, the Olmecs displayed their leaders on giant monuments shaped in human heads. The Olmecs heads are decorated with each head’s decoration different from the other (Lo, 2012). The decorations were used to represent the identity of the ruler, the name was written using a heraldic symbol, or a title. Similarly, there was an elaborate and conventionalized system symbols that are found in the Pre-Classic period of the Mesoamerica. Some symbols were curved; Oaxaca that could be interpreted by the knowledgeable person (Lo, 2012). The Cascajal block in Mesoamerica came into public attention in 2006; it is a small stone tablet inscribed with 62 signs that when they are deciphered they have a strong similarity with the known icons used in Olmec art. Through archaeological studies the Cascajal block dates back to between 1000 and 800 BCE. Furthermore, the Cascajol block is regarded as the oldest form of text in Mesoamerica (Lo, 2012). The Maya script on the other hand, is the most enduring Mesoamerican writing system. The Maya script has a distinctive feature of having square glyph blocks that contain one to five different glyphs with double-column text layout (Elkins, 2003). An ideogram is a graphic symbol that is used to represent an idea or concept. Ideograms convey their messages or meaning through the pictorial resemblance to the physical object and sometimes they are considered to be pictograms (Joanne & Marquard, 2006). Similarly, ideograms are comprehensible or know through the familiarity with the previous convention (Lo, 2012). They were used to describe logograms in writing systems like the hieroglyphs, cuneiform, and other Chinese character. Through history of writing symbols evolved form ideographic to logographic, to phonetic (Sunil et al., 2006). The Bronze Age writing system combined these applications and hence various signs in hieroglyphic and cuneiform writing can be used either logographically or phonetically (Joanne & Marquard, 2006). The Akkadian sign for example can be used as an ideograph for deity. The Chinese characters are logograms; however, in the smaller subclasses particularly in the traditional classification, they have an ideographic origin. Examples of ideograms include traffic signs, like children crossing, Zebra Crossing, and Stop signs (Sturken & Lisa, 2007). Judaism had different signs and symbols that are still in use even up to today. For example the Mezuzah; in traditional Jewish homes there is a special case known as the mezuzah placed upon the doorpost (Sturken & Lisa, 2007). This is used as a reminder of God’s presence. It is also hand written in a special style of writing and should and must always be placed in a case in order to meet the standards of mitzvar (Rich, 2011). Menorah is regarded as the oldest symbol of the Jewish faith, it a seven branched candelabrum that usually used in temple. Sometimes this symbol is said to be the symbol of the nation of Israel and its mission is to be the light unto nations (Rich, 2011). The sages emphasize that light is not a violent force; in this regard, Israel is to accomplish its mission by setting an example and not by forcing her way through (Rich, 2011). The lamps that stand in the today’s synagogues symbolize the menorah. The extensively known and recognized Jewish garb is the Yarmulke; this symbol has no religious significance. The ancient practice of the Jews is their way of praying while covering their heads (Fuery & Patrick, 2003). This is regarded as a sign of respect; by covering the head while praying shows that you have respect for God. During the medieval times, the Jews covered their heads as a reminder that God is always above them. The Magen David also known as the Star of David is a common symbol used in Judaism today. The symbol is supposed to represent the shape of King David’s Shield (Rich, 2011). The Magen David became popular in the 17th century as it was placed on the outside of the synagogues in order to identify them as Jewish houses of warship just like the cross identifies the Christian house of worship. Accordingly, the Magen David gained superior popularity when it was adopted as the emblem of the Zionist movement. Furthermore, the sign is universally recognized as a symbol of Jewry; it is the official sign of the flag of the state of Israel (Rich, 2011). The Relationship between the Written and Pictorial signs Symbols provide shortcuts to meaning; various theorists have come to a singular conclusion that language is a symbolic sign system. However, there are still others who have contrary opinion; for instance they argue that symbols are signifiers that have a close association with the signified. In this regard symbols are not arbitrary; they came into existence because they are associated with ideas. For example traffic signs or road signs have their specific meanings because they are associated with what they represent (Huening, 2010). The picture of a jockey on a horse usually points to where we can fine the racecourse; the sign of an aeroplane always directs or guides people to the nearest airport. The road signs along the road provide extensive information about the regulations and restrictions in force on the road or provide warnings about the likely hazards ahead (Mirzoeff, 2002). The computer desktop is comprised of icons and symbols that used for executing commands particularly when accessing specific information from the system. Gurus in sociology say that we absorb symbols subconsciously (Sassoon & Guar, 1997). The value of sign language through history has been embraced particularly teaching the mentally handicapped. Signs are a representative of actions and meanings of words; they encourage language acquisition especially those considered to be withdrawn and not able to communicate to (Sassoon & Guar, 1997). The sign system has been expanded to include graphic vocabulary of symbols; the pictorial representation of words and concepts that are helpful in reinforcing signing of the vocabulary in use. Symbols have written forms that allow users to comprehend the message and thus help them to respond. Various systems have been put in place to supplement the traditional ways of speech and writing communication; the Bliss, Makaton, Rebus and Sigsymbols are some of the examples of these systems. They consist of a library of pictorial signs or representations that directly provide information to the viewer (Huening, 2010). The real objects can directly be communicated; however, relational symbols like ‘yesterday’ demand a degree of abstraction. For instance, grammatical structures are required in order to communicate complex sentences need a graphic parallel syntax and word order to comprehensively communicate. Bliss system in this regard has a more abstract style that is essential in providing a comprehensive dictionary for users. Learners with severe learning difficulties are usually helped by the use of symbols and signs particularly in interpreting the printed message (Mirzoeff, 2002). The higher percentages of these learners have limited ability to grasp words and their meanings and hence signs and symbols are vital in developing their literacy (Howells & Negreiros, 2012). Similarly, learners with inability in interpreting words use symbols and signs in their daily learning. Second language learners also use symbols and signs as a supplement and a means of cracking codes of the printed words. Signs comprise of symbols, icons and indexes. An icon has qualities that are similar to the object that they signify. A picture is just a symbol and not the duplicate of what it really represents regardless of how realistic it might be (Rich, 2011). Due to the fact that pictures resemble what they really represent only to some extent; they can rarely be mistaken to be real objects. Consequently, icons are usually influenced by the cultural convention of the place particularly where they originate (Sebok 1994). The iconic representation of a lady for a public lavatory is basically known to that culture and someone from outside will not be able to discern that. For icons to be truly and fully represented they must and should be understood across cultures. An index on the other hand is connected to the object in a real manner (Evans & Hall, 1999). For example, the city clock indicates the time of the day (Sunil et al., 2006). It is regarded as a fragment torn a way from the object. As already observed, signs can be symbols, icons or indexes or it can be a combination of all the three. The early writing was highly iconic like the hieroglyphics, and hence the writing has evolved through symbolic characters Peirce developed a triad system symbol/icon/index; it is a massive complex and formal system of semiotics and logic (Sassoon & Guar, 1997). The system is used to identify elements and relationships. According to Peirce, there are many ways of distinguishing signs; the triad system focuses on the relations of signs and their objects (Peirce & Buscheler, 1955). Through the discussion above, we can establish that symbols have convention based relationship with their objects for example the alphanumeric symbols (Fuery & Patrick, 2003). Indexes on the other hand are directly influenced by their real objects for example the thermometer. The icons have specific properties in common with their specific objects like portraits and diagrams (Johansen 2002, p.50). With regard to this understanding taking a photograph for example; it has properties similar to its real object and hence it is an icon; it is physically and directly influenced by its object and thus it is an index; and it needs learning process of reading in order to understand it, therefore, it is a symbol (Johansen 2002 , p.499) The triad system is an abstract system and it applies equally to any and all media or form of communication while not being bias to symbols, icons, or indexes (Peirce & Buscheler, 1955). The system has established that symbols are arbitrary and unmotivated and relies on conventional usage to determine meaning (Sassoon & Guar, 1997). However, it is important to note that symbolic signs are constructed, and in some instances are agreed upon for particular purposes. The best example of symbolic signs is the language; any word is a ne example of a symbol. The alphanumeric keyboard is also a symbol as well as those signs found on the keyboard that are not alphanumeric like &, %, #, $ and @. Symbols are not signs if they lack interpreter or reader (Elkins, 2003) The classical paintings and photographs are icons because they visually resemble their objects. Their resemblance is tangible; for example the algebraical equations are icons because they exhibit the relations of quantities they represent (Rich, 2011). Icons are images that share simple qualities with their objects. Diagrams and their objects share relations or structures for example a map of a subway is an actual representation of the subway. Conclusion Visual Culture is a wide field that has been on the forefront in helping humans understand their environment, circumstances, and learning of new techniques. The history of visual culture resulted into the learning of writing and interpreting of different signs and symbols. Different pictorial forms and written forms of visual arts through history have been used to represent specific ideas. The Mesoamerican writing styles is one of the many ancient visual culture systems that helped in the leaning of writing skills. The Judaism visual culture is also very rich, using different written signs to respect God or worship places. The Current ideograms have different meanings that help human beings in their daily activities. For instance traffic signs are used to give direction to motorists and also they are used to give information with regard to possible activities or dangers ahead. A sign can be represented either by symbols, icons or indexes; there are written signs and pictorial signs which have a common objective; giving information. Bibliography Huening, D 2010 Chicago University: Theories of Media; Symbol Index and Icons. Retrieved on 13/6/2013, from; http://csmt.uchicago.edu/glossary2004/symbolindexicon.htm Sassoon R. and Gaur, A. 1997 Signs Symbols and Icons: Pre-History to the Computer Age. London: Intellect Books Joanne, M. and Marquard, S. (eds.) 2006. Visual Culture: Critical Concepts in Media and Cultural Studies, 4 vols. London: Routledge. Johansen, J. D. 1988. "The Distinction between Icon, Index, and Symbol in the Study of Literature," Semiotic Theory and Practice, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Johansen, J. D. 2002. Signs in Use: An Introduction to Semiotics, New York: Routledge. Peirce, C. S. and Buchler, J (ed.) 1955. The Philosophical Writings of Peirce, New York: Dover. Sebok, T. A 1994. Signs: An Introduction to Semiotics, Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Fuery, K and & Patrick F. 2003. Visual Culture and Critical Theory (1st ed.). London: Arnold Publisher Sunil, M., Simons, J. and Piper A. 2006. Images: A Reader. London: Sage Elkins, J. 2003. Visual Studies: A Skeptical Introduction. New York: Routledge Sturken, M. and Lisa C. 2007. Practices of Looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dikovitskaya M. 2005 Visual Culture: The Study of the Visual after the Cultural Turn. New York: The MIT Press Evans, J. and Hall S. 1999 Visual Culture: The Reader. New Delhi: Sage Mirzoeff, N. 2002 The Visual culture Reader. London: Routledge Howells, R. and Negreiros J 2012 Visual Culture. London: Polity Rich T. R. 2011 Judaism 101: Signs and Symbols. Retrieved on 13/6/2013, from; http://www.jewfaq.org/signs.htm Lo, L. 2012 Mesoamerican Writing System. Retrieved on 13/6/2013, from; http://www.ancientscripts.com/ma_ws.html Read More