Cultural Tourism with the Exploration of Indigenous Cultures - Thesis Example

Running Head: CULTURAL TOURISM Cultural Tourism with the Exploration of Indigenous Cultures Name Class Date Table of Contents Abstract 3 Travel Types 5 Leisure Travel 5 Eco-Tourism 5 Nature and Adventure Travel 7 Cultural Tourism 8 Cultural Travel Research 10 Indigenous Tourism Approach 11 Comparative Locations 12 Kakadu National Park 12 Yellowstone National Park 14 Comparative Discussion 16 Conclusion 17 Resources 19 Abstract Indigenous populations that exist on the lands that a people want to protect are usually a part of that land and should be included in the decision making process in order to sustain those lands. National parks usually have within them populations of people that have established long heritages that must be addressed when preserving lands. In comparing Kakadu National Park in Australia and Yellowstone National Park in the United States, it is clear that the efforts in Kakadu to preserve the heritage of the Aboriginal people is not mirrored in the actions of the United States in trying to sustain the heritage of Native Americans within the boundaries of the park. Sustainability through indigenous approaches to tourism shows that it is a better approach to work with the people of a region than against them to preserve the region in which they live. Cultural Tourism with the Exploration of Indigenous Cultures Introduction Tourism is the act of temporarily moving from the home location to a new location in order to experience the environment of that region. There are a number of different types of travel that can end in tourism experiences. Leisure travel, ecotourism, nature tourism and cultural tourism are all parts of the experience of engaging nature in order to discover history and the world that is not created through human intervention. National parks provide this type of experience where older civilizations have left information within the parks that can lead to archaeological investigation as well as the exploration of the tourist. Through inquiry into the nature of cultural tourism, the economic, political and cultural impact can be understood for the way in which change can take place. Two national parks that can be compared for their advantages in their similarities and dissimilar attributes can be found in Australia and in the United States. In Australia, the Kakadu National Park has a large level of biodiversity in which Aboriginal clans have left for at least 40,000 years. In Yellowstone National Park, the first park in the world to ever be established as a National Park, the evidence of Native American tribes dates back only 11,000 years. The parks both offer a variety of different types of experiences to the traveller with the addition of historic finds that indicate the nature of life within those parks for thousands of years. The experience of a national park is such that the traveller comes away with a sense of awe and wonder at the discovery of something that is both new and fresh, and ancient and historic. The following paper will discuss the various ways in which tourists engage natural environments for experiences. It will then explore the Kakadu National Park in Australia in an overview of the advantages that can be found in that travel experience. Yellowstone National Park in the United States will then be overviewed for its own capacity for tourist activities. The paper will then explore the similarities and differences in the two travel experiences in relationship to indigenous approaches to tourism in order to compare the parks and how they can be experienced. Travel Types Leisure Travel Leisure forms of travel most often occur when there are discretionary funds available towards spending that is outside and beyond what is normally spent for day to day living. Lubbe (2000) suggest that leisure travel is only considered when surplus funds are available to the traveler. Non-leisure travel is defined by that which is required and the availability of funds is immaterial to the plan to travel. This could mean that that the intention of the travel is for business, for family needs, or for a reason that is not defined by the anticipation of an experience that has been planned. Leisure is the application of experience to a shift in location in order to enhance one’s life through some effect of having visited a region of the world. Eco-Tourism Eco-tourism is a term that is used for tourists who want to visit a site without leaving an ecological footprint. When visiting a region of the world that is fairly pristine because care had been taken in order to limit how the region has been approached, a tourist takes precautions to leave little to no evidence that they have been there. Wearing and Neil (2012) define eco-tourism as “a type of specialty travel, incorporating a diverse (and often bewildering) array of activities and tourism types, from bird watching, scientific study, photography, diving, trekking, to regeneration of damaged eco-systems” (p. xii). Eco-tourism often involves not only not leaving a footprint behind, but participating in some form of conservation program that is meant to renew some aspect of a natural region. Eco-tourism is often considered alternative tourism. The idea of eco-tourism is often defined through the supposition that instead of the negative impacts that can be seen in regular tourism, the eco-tourist is intent on doing some form of good during their visit to a region. The changes that have been made in the industry, however, has made it less altruistic and based more on the idea that the tourist gets an experience that has luxury, but also has the benefits of nature that is not defined by the ‘beaten path’. Eco-tourists, in some ways, have turned from the intention of conservationism to taking advantage of the benefits of nature without the consideration to give back (Wearing & Neil, 2012). The beginnings of the idea of eco-tourism were defined by the various ways in which the tourist could benefit the region around the site they were going to see. The more defined definition given by Wearing & Neil (2012) is “a form of tourism that sets out to be consistent with natural, social, and community values and which allows both hosts and guests to enjoy positive and worthwhile interaction and shared experiences” (p. 4). The intention of the eco-tourist is to benefit their surroundings which can include anything from building homes for the impoverished to restoring something about a natural setting. There are two main facets of eco-tourism: It involves travel to unspoilt natural environments This travel is predominantly for experiencing the natural environment (Wearing & Neil, 2012). The term has become a catch-phrase for the various types of natural environment experiences that exist within the offerings of travel. Where it originated as a term to mean a very specific type of experience in which the community was a vital part of the travel, it now means something less specific about how the travel takes place. There should be a differentiation between nature based travel and eco-tourism, but that has grown to not necessarily be honored within the industry. Eco-tourism can sometimes include activities such as zip-lining, which is a definite interruption of the natural environment. Costa Rico often is advertised as a eco-adventure location, but he activities that are listed are more often associated with disruptive rather than restorative. Nature and Adventure Travel There is a romantic idealism about the travelling into the wilds, nature as a draw to the tourist who wishes to immerse themselves back into the wild. The sense of new primitivisms and the idea of a philosophy that provides an approach to travel into a natural environment suggests that the urban experience is missing something that can be replaced during trips into the wilderness. If it is a natural call to want to go into the green of the wood or an imperative that comes as a contrast to the structure of urban living is not known, but people are drawn into the natural world year after year in order to enjoy the benefits that have been provided rather than created by human hands (Smethurst, 2012). Nature travel came into vogue during the Enlightenment where the natural world began to be defined by the scientific community. Nature became a platform on which different types of scientific inquiry were intended to be built. Agriculture, botany, wine making, and medical science were all interested in exploring the wild in order to further understand their professions. The philosophy of the natural world was not only romanticized, but was a framework through which the development of travel became based. Smethurst (2012) writes that “the idea of society progressing through the domination of nature was seeded, and as the mechanical sciences and mathematics evolved, mankind’s horizons expanded in a number of ways” (p. 22). The mystical nature of science, despite the oxymoron that this creates, was combined with the romantic notions of nature to make trips into nature both restorative and magical for the 19th century traveller. Modern travellers still seem to have this type of reverence for the natural world, travelling to natural wonders in order to experience the world as it was intended. It is an abandonment of the material world in which nature challenges human kind through providing experiences of the world that are no longer available where human beings have settled. Engaging nature through experience is a way in which to see what can be created without the use of human intervention. Travel into nature is designed in order to provide the basic experiences, with the conveniences that modern human beings expect in their world. Combining accommodation with the experience of nature is one of the most profitable and successful forms of travel. Taking a holiday to the beach, to a ski resort, or to a cabin in the mountains is all designed to engage nature without leaving civilization behind. Cultural Tourism Cultural tourism has been the most popular form of tourism that takes place in a variety of locations and regions around the world. When someone goes from their own home region into a foreign region, it is their intention to engage in experiences with the local culture in which they have immersed themselves. The intention of cultural tourism is to find out something new about the world. There are a great number of ways in which cultural tourism will take place, but he primary way is in simply visiting and seeing what there is to see in a region. Cultural tourism can be as simple as engaging in the American theme park of Disney World in order to understand the culture of fantasy to visiting the Africa and experiencing the tribal nations of that region of the world. There are very controlled versions of cultural travel as well as extremes in which natural habitats of human life are seen through experiences within a community that may be very different than that of the traveller When cultural travel is combined with eco-travel, the result may be very compelling. Visiting regions of the world where Western ideals of life are no longer valid may provide the traveller with experiences that are enlightening and broadening of their scope on understanding life. Cultural travel that engages indigenous populations allow for the traveller to become much more experienced in the human condition, their perspective on the world changed through seeing the point of view on life that a population may have that does not share the same ideals as the traveller. Participation in the rituals, traditions, and meanings of life that are offered through engaging a population that has a distinct presence within the world can be transformative. Eco-travel means going into those communities without the intention of changing them. It is the traveller that is changed, not the environment. It is naive to believe, however, that a community that hosts outsiders will not be changed by the presence of those who come from lands of a different type of riches. Hotels, luxury accommodations, advantages based on Western ideals all can be seen growing in a world where these types of necessities had never before been a part of their life. Accommodations for travellers come with the need for employees, growing the economy on a different track than their origins would prescribe. Post-colonialism frameworks of understanding can be applied as the indigenous population is radically changed for the benefit of the travelling population. An example of this can be seen in the Maldives where the development of meaningful tourist industries has changed the nature of work and economy (Smith & Robinson, 2006). The nature of cultural tourism when it develops and grows into a tourism industry is to transform the local population and community through economic growth as well as dilution of the local traditions and rituals that define the population. Cultural Travel Research Research into cultural tourism has grown because of the impact that the tourism industry has had on the locations around the world in which cultural tourism has been cultivated. There are a great number of regions that have been developed specifically for the cultural tourist. Areas that intent to give the tourist an experience of the local culture have developed attractions in order to call tourists into their economy. Using methods of inquiry in order to discover how these regions have developed their tourism in comparison to preserving their community has been an area of research that has held a great deal of interest in the last 30 years. Developing theories and explanations for cultural tourism has been of high interest to scholars as they attempt to describe and explain the phenomenon. There are a great number of reasons for researching the phenomenon of cultural tourism. The phenomenon of travel became of high interest in the 19th century as going on holiday became a part of European life. Escaping the mundane was considered of high interest for the purpose of health, thus creating the idea of relaxation. In current frameworks of study, cultural travel has become far more about the experience of engaging the local communities in order to develop an understanding of their nature. However, it is far more usual for the experience to be created on the myths and lore about the culture that is being visited. The study of this phenomenon includes cultural, political, and economic influences of tourism as they impact the local populations for the way in which that impact creates change. Researching the way in which local communities are engaged and how the tourist impacts the local culture provides an interesting and informative set of data through which to understand further how tourism transforms. Indigenous Tourism Approach In the development of tourism that is based upon the existence of historical evidence of indigenous populations to specific areas, indigenous tourism approaches provide for an understanding of the capacity of such regions both for history and economic advantages. Aichen and Ryan (2005) write that there are three different dimensions to indigenous tourism approaches. The first is the academic aspect in which scholars use travel into certain regions as a means to investigation. This includes archaeological investigation that must be approved because of the invasive nature of digging into the ground in order to discover the past. The second aspect is that of the indigenous perspective that must evaluate the advantages of allowing intrusion into the history of their culture against the economic value of that intrusion. Tourism can operate to help preserve an area so that the inclusion of tourist activities benefits the region even though damage is also caused. The third dimension is the tourist whose needs must be evaluated and accommodated in order to be attracted to the region. One of the problems with engaging in tourism that is specific to investigating and getting to know the traditions and rituals of a people is that when that information is taken out of the region, it can be passed around and taken out of context, shadowing the true nature of a people. An example can be taken from the animal world. For a long period investigators watched as alligators seemed to devour their young. This practice led to scholars to believe that alligators had no interest in their young. This had been proven to be a false logic as while it appeared that alligators were eating their young, in fact, they were carrying their young in their mouths and throat. Alligator mothers are very territorial about their nests and fiercely protective of their offspring. This zoological example shows how the tourist can muddy the truth about the traditions of a people because they do not understand what has occurred. The observed experience may not necessarily have meaning applied to the understanding that is taken away from the experience. The approach to observing and experiencing indigenous populations that should be respected is through letting the indigenous representatives define how that experience can be deployed. Through cooperation with local and regional representatives of the culture, people who are exposed to the culture can come away from the controlled experience with an understanding of what they have observed. The nature of the experience cannot always be controlled, however, so educational information is essential in providing a broader view than just the eyes can provide. Tours and pamphlets are essential in giving the tourist the best potential for a full experience in the indigenous cultural experience. Comparative Locations Kakadu National Park Located between the Alligator Rivers Region and the Northern Territory of Australia, this national park covers approximately 19,000 km of land space. The region is the size of a small country, nearly half as large as Switzerland. The region has a high level of both ecological and biological diversity in which with four major rivers and six major land formations running through the area. The rivers are the Wildman River, the South Alligator River, the East and the West Alligator rivers. The six land formations include flood lands, lowlands, the outliers, the southern hills and basins, estuaries and tidal flats, as well as the region of stones. The region hosts over 250 types of birds, about 70 mammal species, over 10,000 types of insects, and over 1500 different plant varieties (Higgins and Newman, 2004). The indigenous populations of the region include a variety of clans of aboriginal people. More than half of the land has been designated for ownership by Aboriginal clans, their history available on the land itself in the form of art sites in which drawings and writings are in the landscape itself. There are at least 4500 sites where art of the Aboriginal culture can be found. Archaeological investigation has shown that the Aboriginal clans have occupied this region for as long as 50,000 years. The land has been seen as one of the richest areas in Australia through which to experience the traditions and rituals of Aboriginal history through what has been left to be found through exploration and inquiry. The artwork that is left is a visual history through which some understanding of the mysteries of the past can be discovered and become a part of the knowledge of the traveller (Morris, 1996). The land is administrated through the Director of National Parks to whom the Aboriginal clans lease the land. The whole park, other than the mines, has been designated as a National Park under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act of 1999. Part of the park is land that is under the Commonwealth which is also placed under the administration of the Director of National Parks. This is a protective measure so that those with commercial interests are not allowed to decimate any more of the park than has already been disturbed. This preserves the land for the future so that its history is not loss in the destruction of industry (Smith & Robinson, 2006). This concept of joint management has been an important step in developing the security of the region. Clan owners of the park have a part in making decisions for the land. One of the hopes of the joint managers of the land is that through tourism the economic support of the land can be established so that the temptation to use the land commercially is never considered. One of the ways in establishing the importance of the park is its inclusion in the World Heritage properties that comes through the international Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Kakadu is one of only 23 sites around the world that is preserved on this list for both its natural and cultural contribution to history (Bushell, Eagles, & World Parks Congress, 2006). The park is the home of the Ranger Uranium Mine which is a highly productive uranium mine which has cut into the natural environment. The mine is kept separate from the rest of the park, even though it is surrounded entirely by the natural preserves, but speaks as a reminder that no place is sacred where profit is concerned. Discovered in 1969, the body of ore has been in operation since 1981 in which the production of uranium oxide began to be accomplished through operational oversight by the Energy Resources of Australia. Nuclear power stations in Asia, including Japan, and South Korea, and in the West, including the UK, Germany, Sweden, the United States and France all profit from the energy product (Merkel, Planer-Friedrich, & Wolkersdorfer, 2002). Yellowstone National Park In 1872 the first national park was established by President Ulysses S. Grant of the United States when the region known as Yellowstone was designated as a national treasure. There are a variety of ecosystems within the region which includes the famous geothermal feature Old Faithful, a geyser that goes off on regular intervals. One of the most predominant features is the subalpine forest which is covers most of the region. Native American existence in the region shows that it has been occupied by tribes for at least 11,000 years. The region was largely ignored for most of Western occupation history. It was not until the late 19th century that exploration of the area provided for an understanding of the beauty and value of the area. The area, since that time, has become a popular and fruitful region for archaeological investigation (Whittlesey & Watry, 2008). There are more than 1,000 sites that are used for anthropological research in Yellowstone. The National Park Service endorses valid academic study of the sites in order to preserve the histories that can be recorded from these sites. Not only the history of the Native Americans is available, but that of the historic ‘mountain men’ who were men who went into the mountains and lived isolated lives with very little contact with anyone else in the world. The scholarly investigations in this region has revealed a wealth of information which has been informative in relationship to Native American studies (Whittlesey & Watry, 2008) The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem is one of the few remaining intact ecosystems in the northern temperate zone and spans approximately 9,000 km. The region has lakes, canyons, mountain ranges and rivers through which the ecosystem is supported. One of the few high altitude lakes in the United States, Yellowstone Lake is over the Yellowstone Caldera which is the largest volcano which is termed a supervolcano in North America. The volcano is active and has erupted a few times in the last two million years. The geothermal features in Yellowstone contain half of those in the world with the volcano at the heart of their existence. Most of the region has cooled lava flow and rocks which comes from the volcano activity (National Park Service, 2013). One of the more serious problems that used to exist in the park was that of feeding the bears. The bears in the park were being fed by tourists as they traveled about the park, leading them to see humans as a resource for food. Bears would approach tourists and accost their cars in order to get some food, but this was dangerous to both the tourists and the bears. In 1973 feeding the bears was prohibited in the park so that the natural way for bears to get food was re-established. This shows how nature and human kind can affect one another in a meaningful way. A cartoon show, Yogi Bear, was created that showed the focus of the bear to be on picnic baskets, making light of the serious problem for the benefit of children (Whittlesey & Watry 2008). Comparative Discussion One of the most striking differences between the Kakadu National Park and Yellowstone National Park is that the Native American presence in Yellowstone has been downplayed. Native Americans do not own a part of the park, nor do they have many powers in relationship to the investigations that have taken place on the land of the park about their cultures (Nabokov & Loendorf, 2006). In Kakadu, the Aboriginal people not only own half of the lands, but they help in the administration and decision making process. They have the power to help in protecting their heritage as it is represented on those lands (Morris, 1996). McCool and Moisey (2008) discuss that the weaknesses that can be seen in the Yellowstone sustainability framework is through the neglect that has occurred in relationship to the Native American populations. Sustaining their cultural history has been subverted through irresponsible management of their native lands and historic landmarks. In the United States, indigenous populations were routinely removed from National Parks, eliminating them from the pristine lands as a measure to preserve them. Newsome, Moore, and Dowling (2012) see Kakadu National Park as a successful example of joint management where respect for the cultural history of Aboriginal people has been maintained through communications and participation by all local communities. Newsome, Moore, and Dowling (2012) write that “Kakadu is regarded as an Aboriginal cultural landscape” (p. 282). The art on the land formations and the presence of clans still living on the land has been respected, the avenue of tourism made accessible through the agreements of the Aboriginal populations as they participate in creating the tourist attraction to the area. Yellowstone was cultivated for its natural environment and the attitude of the administration was that the Native populations were marring the natural environment rather than adding to it. Although more recent scholarly investigation has negated that thinking, the removal of Native Americans materially changed the nature of the local environment. In relationship to indigenous approaches to tourism, the existence of Native American populations have not been sustainably included in the Yellowstone National Park framework (McCool & Moisey, 2008) McCool and Moisey (2008) define how a National Park has the best chance to be sustainable. One of the three prongs that will sustain a national park is the maintenance of indigenous populations in a manner that respects their culture. While current political frameworks include Native Americans in the decision making process to some degree, it is listed as a serious shortcoming in the sustainability of the region of Yellowstone. It has only been in the 21st century that Native Americans have been included when considering decisions for Yellowstone National Park by the American government. Conclusion Travel is approached by tourists from a series of perspectives through which experience is considered and the hope for enlightenment promotes relocating temporarily to an ‘exotic’ location. The search for experience through attending a national park can include eco-tourism concepts, natural tourism desires, and the hope of cultural experiences through indigenous populations. The investigation of tourism approaches allows for the nature of experience to inform how the political, economic, and cultural impact can be balanced in a benefit and cost analysis where the impact on the environment is concerned. Tourism, however, is desired because of the alternative which can mean industrial use of the resources, changing the natural beauty of the environment. The nature of tourism in the Kakadu National Park in Australia in comparison to that of Yellowstone National Park in the United States shows that the indigenous approach to tourism was enthusiastically embraced in Australia where it was vigorously negated by the United States. Where Australia has actively include the Aboriginal clans in the decision making process in order to sustain and preserve their natural resource, the Native Americans were escorted off of the land in order to create and preserve the land over the heritage of the people. In the area of preservation, Australia made responsible choices that would preserve the best possible advantages of the region and to support the more honest translation of the area to the tourists who visit. Resources Aicken, M., & Ryan, C. (2005). Indigenous tourism: the commodification and management of culture. Amsterdam [u.a.: Elsevier. Bushell, R., Eagles, P. F. J., & World Parks Congress. (2006). Tourism and protected areas: Benefits beyond boundaries. Wallingford: CABI Pub. Higgins, G., & Newman, D. (2004). Kakadu National Park. Newtown, N.S.W: Woolahra. Lubbe, B. (2000). Tourism distribution: Managing the travel intermediary. Kenwyn: Juta. McCool, S. F., & Moisey, R. N. (2008). Tourism, recreation, and sustainability: Linking culture and the environment. Wallingford England: CABI. Merkel, B. J., Planer-Friedrich, B., & Wolkersdorfer, C. (2002). Uranium in the aquatic environment: Proceedings of the International Conference Uranium Mining and Hydrogeology III and the International Mine Water Association symposium, Freiberg, Germany, 15 - 21 September 2002. Berlin: Springer. Morris, I. (1996). Kakadu National Park Australia. Bowen Hills, Qld: Steve Parish Pub. Nabokov, P., & Loendorf, L. L. (2004). Restoring a presence: American Indians and Yellowstone National Park. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. National Park Service. (2013). Hydrothermal systems and how they work. Retrieved from http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geothermal.htm (Accessed on 31 January 2013). Newsome, D., Moore, S. A., & Dowling, R. K. (2012). Natural area tourism: Ecology, impacts and management. Bristol: Channel View. Smethurst, P. (2012). Travel writing and the natural world: 1768-1840. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Smith, M. K., & Robinson, M. (2006). Cultural tourism in a changing world: Politics, participation and (re)presentation. Clevedon, Angleterre ; Toronto: Channel View Publications. Wearing, S. & Neil, J. (2012). Ecotourism. New York: Routledge. Whittlesey, L. H., & Watry, E. A. (2008). Yellowstone National Park. Charleston, S.C: Arcadia Pub. Read More