Concept of Sustainable Tourism - Essay Example

Responsible Tourism at Masai Mara Game Reserve Table of Contents Contents 0 Introduction 2.0 Concept of Sustainable Tourism 2 3.0 Concept of Responsible Tourism 4 4.0 Difference between Sustainable Tourism and Responsible Tourism 7 5.0 Stakeholder Responsibility 7 6.0 Background – Masai Mara 9 7.0 Situation Analysis 12 8.0 SMART Objectives 14 9.0 Strategies to achieve SMART Objectives 16 10.0 Conclusion 18 1.0 Introduction Tourism has often been used as a tool for social and economic development particularly by Third World Countries. The governments in these countries take the initiative to develop tourism as a quick and reliable source of much sought after foreign exchange receipts, job creation and economic growth (Akama, 1999). These initiatives are based on the assumption that in the long-term, tourism will contribute to economic diversification while reducing the dependency on export of conventional raw materials. However, tourism in Third World countries has been growing without coherent and comprehensive planning strategies and appropriate tourism policy responses. As a result, the situations is several destinations including Africa is characterized by deteriorating infra-structure, political and economic instability, increasing external control and weak backward and forward linkage with other economic sectors. Besides, tourism benefits do not filter down to poor communities (Booyens, 2010). With changes in consumer lifestyle and higher disposable incomes, more people desire to travel and experience pleasure. The World Travel Organization (WTO) predicts that by 2020 international arrivals would exceed 15 million (UNEP, 2005). Growth in tourism would take place across the world but it would be concentrated in the developing countries. In South Africa alone international arrivals are set to grow at an average of 5.5 per year. This can have profound impact on the local economies and the destination because human systems and the environment are strongly coupled and jointly determined systems. For sustainable development the social and the ecological systems cannot be analysed separately (Modvar & Gallopin, 2005). In fact, the perspectives and concerns of the major stakeholders need to be incorporated for an effective decision making. This is because there is a relationship between tourist behavior and their attitude towards the environment (Andereck, 2009). The purpose of this report is to evaluate the concepts of sustainable and responsible tourism, and the similarities and difference between these two concepts. Based on an understanding of responsible tourism, this report presents a responsible tourism strategy for Masai Mara game Reserve. The problems at Mara are identified and then objectives have been set followed by the strategy to achieve the SMART objectives. 2.0 Concept of Sustainable Tourism The concept of sustainability first came into discussions in1987 with the release of the Brundtland Commission’s “Our Common Future” sponsored by the UN Commission (Ernst & Young, 2008). The growing environmental awareness and the concerns for ecological balance were discussed at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 focusing on the sustainable development of tourism. This concept soon gained momentum in the hospitality sector when three international organizations - the World Travel & Tourism Council, the World Tourism Organization and the Earth Council - jointly launched “Agenda 21 for the Travel & Tourism Industry: Towards Environmentally Sustainable Development”. Agenda 21 was basically an action plan for sustainable development, integrating the goals of environmental protection and economic development. Thereafter, based on Article 21, “Green Global” was created which soon became a benchmarking, certification and performance-improvement program. The Brundtland Commission defines sustainability as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Ernst & Young, 2008). The ‘triple bottom line’ concept in sustainable development includes 3 Ps namely, profits (economic prosperity), people (social prosperity) and planet (environmental prosperity). These three pillars of sustainable development are independent and a balance between all three can lead to sustainable development (UNEP, 2005). The seventh session of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD-7) gave importance to consumption and production patterns, oceans and seas, small island developing states but even after ten years the objectives of the Rio Summit remain unfulfilled. Tourism can positively impact local economies through job creation and stimulating investments. However, economic responsibility lies in ensuring generation of income at all levels. Practice of fair trade and supporting the local SMEs can help towards discharge of this responsibility. Social sustainability refers to respect for human rights and ensuring equal opportunity for all. Poverty alleviation should be focused upon and exploitation in any form avoided. It also provides tangible economic value to natural and cultural resources in addition to being a force for inter-cultural understanding and peace. However tourism can also impact the fragile ecosystem leading to disruption of wild life, depletion of resources, contribute to global pollution and cause dislocation of traditional societies (UNEP, 2005). All the stakeholders are therefore, responsible in sustainable development of a destination. Sustainability is about creating a better life for the people through economic development but while ensuring ecological balance. According to Ramachandran (2005) sustainability in developing economies can lead to inequitable distribution of income and unless this issue is addressed it could lead to political, economic and social instability. It has become imperative for states, regions and countries to conduct an environmental impact assessment (EIA) as per Principle 17 of the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) (Betey & Godfred, 2013). While EIA has been recognized as a tool for environmental protection and sustainable development, it has not been integrated into planning and decision-making processes; its application is limited to the project level. Africa lacks strong institutions and human resource capacity apart from lack of direct investment in growth opportunities. Rapid population growth, illiteracy and corruption are the greatest threats to the success of EIA. Businesses and communities have to cooperate and assume responsibility to achieve the desired results for sustainable development. The Brundtland Commission identified seven elements of sustainable development in “Our Common Future”: Reviving growth Changing the quality of growth Meeting the essential needs such as jobs, food, energy, water and sanitation Ensuring a sustainable level of population Conserving and enhancing the resource base Reorienting technology and managing risk Merging environment and economics in decision making 3.0 Concept of Responsible Tourism While the benefits of tourism are many, the challenge lies in managing the resources in a responsible manner (Ramachandran, 2005). Tourists place a high level of importance when they see environmentally responsible practices being implemented by tourism business. Particularly those that are highly motivated by nature-oriented experiences perceive environmentally responsible actions as more valuable than those who do not engage in such activities (Andereck, 2009). The concept of responsible tourism has been fuelled by increasing international pressure to address issues of global warming, social inequality and depleting natural resources (Booyens, 2010). Tourists have become more demanding and want to learn more about the destination they visit, to interact with local people and to experience the local culture. According to South African Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT), responsible tourism is defined as “tourism that promotes responsibility to the environment through its sustainable use; responsibility to involve local communities in the tourism industry; responsibility for the safety and security of visitors and responsible government, employees, employers, unions and local communities” (DEAT, 1996:4 cited in Merwe and Wocke, 2006). The concept of responsible tourism was first endorsed by White Paper on the Development and Promotion of Tourism in South Africa in 1996 followed by the publication of the National Responsible Tourism Guidelines for South Africa and the Cape Town Declaration of Responsible Tourism in Destinations in 2002 (Booyens, 2010). Since then several responsible tourism initiatives have been developed such as Fair Trade in Tourism South Africa and the Imvelo Responsible Tourism Awards. According to Spenceley (2008) responsible tourism principles have also been incorporated into government policy frameworks and local economic development strategies as well as by non-governmental organizations (cited in Booyens, 2010). These principles are based on the triple bottom line imperatives of social, economic and environmental sustainability. Tourism enterprises are encouraged to grow their businesses but ensuring social and environmental benefits to local communities. Responsible tourism products are also expected to become part of the mainstream tourism industry through entrepreneurship which would help avoid exploitation of local communities and culture. The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism’s National Responsible Tourism Guidelines emphasizes that the economic benefits of tourism should be directed towards communities (DEAT, 2002 cited in Booyens, 2010). DEAT specifies guidelines for responsible tourism which include: Locals should be involved in decision-making; they should be employed, trained and empowered to become owners of tourism products Good and service should be procured locally Small business development and local entrepreneurship should be encouraged Local cultures should be respected and protected Heritage and cultural resources should be preserved Development in the region should be sensitive to the environment All these are considered essential elements of responsible tourism because commodification of heritage resources has a negative effect on the conservation of such resources (Booyens, 2010). The concept of responsible tourism has also been related to pro-poor tourism (Ramachandran, 2005; Merwe & Wocke, 2006) but pro-poor tourism only takes into account the economic growth in the region whereas responsible tourism should include responsibility towards all the negative impacts in the region. In South Africa tourism companies and destinations have been slow to accept responsible tourism practices (Merwe & Wocke, 2006). Ramachandran (2005) cites of numerous benefits of responsible tourism including sustainable growth in the region, enhancing the country’s image as a tourism destination, and improving the livelihood of the local communities. Responsible tourism is culturally sensitive as it reinforces the respect between the tourists and host, and helps the local people feel a sense of pride (International Conference on Responsible Tourism in Destinations, 2002). All these create increased investment potential and newer business opportunities. International Centre for Responsible Tourism (ICRT) works in close cooperation with the government, businesses and NGOs with a focus on the Cape Town Declaration of Responsible Tourism in Destinations (ICRT, 2013). ICRT takes initiatives in raising issues but works in close cooperation with all stakeholders to find solutions. 4.0 Difference between Sustainable Tourism and Responsible Tourism In sustainable tourism the three pillars for sustainable development are focused upon – profit, people and planet or economic, social and environment. The purpose is to ensure that the needs of the present and future generations are met. Responsible tourism is the initiative that all stakeholders have to take to achieve sustainability. Thus responsible tourism involves local people in the development of the region and in preservation of cultural heritage because tourism affects the life and livelihood of the local people. The aims of responsible tourism are to minimize the negative impacts and maximize positive impacts through cooperation among all the stakeholders. The goals of both sustainable and responsible tourism are the same but acting with responsibility makes the difference. Sustainable tourism has not been able to achieve the desired results because each stakeholder expects the other to behave in a sustainable manner. Therefore, responsible tourism fills in the gap created by sustainable tourism. 5.0 Stakeholder Responsibility As consumer attitude towards environmentalism is changing, pressure for environmentalism comes from customer, employees, legislation, Green pressure groups, media and investors that seek ethical investment. All the stakeholders are equally responsible for the survival and success of tourism in a destination. The responsibility of each stakeholder has been defined below as per UNEP (2005). The Government – The government has the responsibility to bring together the tourism and the conservation stakeholders to work in cohesion towards the benefit of people, profit and planet (triple bottom line). The government also is responsible to define standards and regulations and have modalities in place and also ensure that these are adhered to by different stakeholders. The government also has to take the responsibility to provide technical support, marketing and other appropriate measures deemed essential for sustainable development. The Consumers – Consumers are the most critical stakeholders as they have the responsibility not to leave behind any negative impact at the destination. Responsible tourists have become an attraction for the tour operators but the responsibility of the tour operators does not end by segmenting the responsible tourists (Sindiga, 1999). The Tour Operators – As consumers have become conscious consumers they demand adequate and appropriate information on any destination. It is thus the responsibility of tour operators to advice tourists who visit locally owned facilities and resorts (Goodwin & Francis, 2003). The tourists should be made conscious of the negative impacts and benefits of being responsible tourists. The tourists should also be made conscious of respecting the local culture and conserving natural resources such as water. In addition, education on their own health and safety should also be provided by the tour operator. The role of the tour operators should include encouraging clients, guests and tourists to engage in travel philanthropy – give back to the places that they have visited or are visiting (Goodwin, McCombes & Eckardt, 2009). Funds can be raised through company donations and these corporate social responsibility donations from profits would benefit the companies as well. Travel and tourism companies have been making donations in the form of time but they should also be encouraged to initiate fund raising through their clients. Donations from tourists should be encouraged. The Local people – This group of stakeholders are the most affected by the negative impacts of tourism but they are the ones that have the greatest treasure of the knowledge of their ecology. Thus, according to Sindiga (1999) they are the best suited to manage the resource system in an appropriate manner. Thus the local people should be involved in both tourism activities and conservation. In Zimbabwe communal involvement in conservation and tourism has achieved success the CAMPFIRE (communal area management programme for indigenous resources) program (Sindiga, 1999). In Namibia too, the government has adopted community-based tourism development as a state policy. This helps in minimizing the conflicts and competition in minimizing negative impacts which threatens parks; it has also helped to alleviate people from poverty. However, communities may need supervision because they are not a homogenous group. Authorities Responsible for National Parks have the responsibility to ensure that tourism generated income for the region is an opportunity for sustained livelihood which demands careful management. Based on responsible tourism policy and guidelines, Fair Trade in Tourism South Africa (FTTSA) awards a certification Trademark on the basis of self-assessment and verified by the concerned authorities (UNEP, 2005). 6.0 Background – Masai Mara The Masai Mara (MM) Game Reserve in Kenya, one of the world’s top tourist attractions, is vital to Kenya’s economy. The Masai Mara Game Reserve is a part of the larger ecosystem of 25,000 sq km which includes the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem. This eco system is renowned for the spectacular annual migration of 1.3 million wildebeest, 0.6 million zebra and Grant’s gazelle (ABCD, n.d.). It is spread over 1500 square kilometers of grassland and it is home to an outstanding variety of wildlife of every description, which includes large mammals, variety of bird life, insect species that pollinate the plants and provide food to those higher in the food chain (Walpole, Karanja, Sitati & Leader-Williams, 2003). This huge variety of wildlife is the result of the variety of habitats found in the Mara including endless rolling grassland plains, upland thickets, acacia woodlands, swamps and canopy forests. A visitor has the opportunity to see elephants, rhino, buffaloes, lions and leopards (Walpole et al, 2003). The money spent by the tourists at Masai is used for conservation of vital resources, provides employment for the local people and generates taxes to support the national government. This makes it important that the biodiversity is conserved as it supports sustainable development of the region. Black Rhino population had declined due to poaching, which resulted from conflicts between people and rhinos. However, black rhinos are one of the most important reserves, for both conservation and tourism. While black rhinos and other wildlife are great tourist attractions and they bring dollars to the place, provide employment to people but the impact on the environment is harmful. The major impact of tourism is uncontrolled off-road driving that occurs in accessible areas where vehicle pressure is greatest (Walpole et al, 2003). This has damaged several square kilometers of grassland. Wildlife is impacted by the speeding vehicles and regulations are broken in 90 percent of lion and cheetah viewing events. Too many vehicles around animals and driving too close to the animals were the most frequently broken regulations. Accommodation facilities have been developing outside Masai Mara and despite a moratorium on further establishment of facilities, they keep growing. The number of facilities increased after hunting was banned in Kenya. Visitor arrival has a set pattern – twice a year is peak season and twice a year is lean season. July and August register the highest occupancy rates (European and American summer holiday period) and the least occupancy rates are during the long and the short rains, during May (longer rains) and short rains (during November-December). As per a research carried out by the International Livestock Research Institute wildlife numbers have been falling in Masai Mara between 1989 and 2003 due to growing human settlements in land bordering the reserve (Sustainableslump, 2009). Increased grazing of the cattle has been taking place which is an illegal activity and some of the Masaai have switched from conservation and tourism to agriculture. There have been concerns about sustainability of tourism because of the threats of depletion of indigenous animals, degradation of the landscape, and its consequent impact on the native Masai Mara tribes. Extreme poverty and lack of adequate education has forced Masaai parents to sell off their young daughters to human traffickers, victims are trafficked for sexual exploitation, domestic labour, agriculture, factory work and street work (Njeru, 2010). While tourism has been growing there is lack of resources to manage tourism which leads to persistent tensions between the stakeholders. These also present long-term threats to the tourism industry. Change in land use, over population, poaching, deforestation, conflicts due to unequal sharing of revenue, poor infrastructure and insecurity all lead to tensions (Onchwati, Sommerville, & Brockway, 2006). Poaching and trophy hunting have claimed 92 percent of the rhinoceros and 70 percent of the elephant population (GoNomad, 2004). In addition, it has also been found that increasing human activity on the Kenyan side of the Serengeti ecosystem might discourage animals from crossing over in future as they have been doing for years. This assumption is based on the sudden change in the animals’ migratory patterns. Wildebeests used to stay for three months in Mara before rushing back to Tanzania but now this is reduced to three weeks. Almost 1.5 million wildebeests and 300,000 zebras, buffaloes and gazelles form the annual mass movements of herbivores that migrate from Tanzania to Kenya every year (African Conservation Foundation, 2012). 7.0 Situation Analysis Sustainable and responsible tourism strategy can be recommended based on external and internal analysis of the Game Reserve. In the next section, SWOT analysis has been carried out based on which SMART objectives have been formulated. Internal Analysis Strengths Masai Mara is a part of the large ecosystem Home to renowned rare wildlife species A variety of habitats One of Kenya’s most attractive tourist destination, excellent revenue generation through tourism Annual revenue generation to the tune of Sh2.6 billion Weaknesses Tension between stakeholders Lack of resources to manage tourism in the region The inability to impose regulations such as reduced vehicular traffic movement or mushrooming of lodges Lack of a master plan or Mara management plan by stakeholders to guide the developments and investments in Mara Poor state of roads and other infrastructure in the area affects tourism Lack of signage to direct tourists to the various points External Analysis Opportunities Establishing partnership with and ownership by the community to become sustainable Rethinking of livelihood activities Work closely with the community Engage travelers in travel philanthropy Encourage the local people to produce saleable goods which would provide a means to their livelihood Participate with banks in the region to alleviate poverty through financing income generating projects Involve scientists and technologists in research Threats Effects of imbalance between expansion of tourism and continued natural degradation Tanzania’s Serengeti National Park within the same ecosystem benefits because of better management policies and increase in number of wildlife species and numbers Traditional migratory routes for wildlife being lost due to increasing human activities on the Kenyan side of the Serengeti ecosystem Land being lost to development, agriculture, tourist facilities, large-scale farming, and other interests The livelihood of the indigenous Masaai people in threatened Uncontrolled development threatens the eco system both within the wildlife reserves and in the adjacent communal Masaai grazing lands Popular pressures from the surrounding regions of Eastern Africa are further distressing the land and its resources. Changes in Serengeti migration patterns might affect tourist season in Mara Changes in Serengeti migration pattern might also direct tourists to Tanzania instead of Kenya Climate change Human trafficking caused by poverty and lack of education The SWOT analysis suggests that all three spheres of sustainability are affected at Mara. As far as the people or the social aspect is concerned, poverty, lack of education and even human trafficking has not allowed the local communities to benefit from tourism. Tourism has been generating revenues but because of poor management and strategy, the benefits have not been achieved. Lack of environmental management is severely affecting wildlife and the ecosystem which is the main attraction for tourists. Therefore, unless the ecosystem is protected and effort made to conserve the environment and the habitat, Mara may soon lose tourists to Serengeti Natural Reserve in Tanzania. There has to be a shift from weak sustainability to strong sustainability. Currently tourism generates revenues but at the cost of depletion of natural resources, which is an indicator or weak sustainability. Strong sustainability suggests that all forms of capital have to be maintained intact as all forms of capital are complementary. Overall responsible tourism is lacking as none of the stakeholders demonstrate effective discharge of their duties and responsibilities. The technocentric view of sustainability suggests that sustainability can be achieved through new green technologies and more sophisticated management of resources. However, this can be achieved when fundamental changes can be introduced in the society and in the way tourists interact with nature. Awareness of environmental issues has to be raised among the tourists. 8.0 SMART Objectives To ensure that MM is preserved for further generations, and to ensure responsible tourism is achieved based on the tenets of sustainable tourism, the following objectives have to be set: To engage banks in promoting local SMEs to ensure no unemployment by 2020 To create awareness among the visitors of their responsibility towards the ecosystem of Mara with immediate effect To involve tour operators in creating awareness on travel philanthropy in the next two years To have a strict administration system to ensure regulations are adhered to with immediate effect Measurable Unemployment levels can easily be ascertained and once economic growth has taken place education level would rise and other issues such as human trafficking would reduce. If travel volunteering is forthcoming, the tour operators have discharged their responsibility. If visitors avoid the no entry zones, then administration has been successful because wildlife is diverted away from traditional routes because of vehicles and human movement on the path. Awareness of visitors can be measured by the reduction in waste, discipline, and their choosing lodges that support the ecosystem. Achievable These objectives are achievable because tourist arrival is high and hence tour operators have the opportunity to influence their guests and clients. Tour operators would benefit as they would be recognized as responsible organizations. Local banks would have an interest in supporting local communities as they too would gain from the process. Change in consumer mindset towards responsible and ethical tourism has been aroused and hence it is expected that they would be willing to fulfill their responsibility as tourists. Relevant These objectives are relevant as they involve all the stakeholders - the Masai people, conservationists including the Kenya Wildlife Service and the Masai Mara Game Reserve Management, local tourism and lodge operators, tour operators and the government departments. When all the stakeholders work in cohesion and cooperation, the goal is one and responsible tourism can be achieved. Sustainable development at all three levels is expected through the achievement of these objectives, hence they are considered relevant. Time-Bound Time has been set to achieve these objectives, while some can be implemented and results seen immediately, others such as no unemployment would take time. However, gradually it would be possible to observe the difference once corrective action start. 9.0 Strategies to achieve SMART Objectives The SMART objectives can be achieved by using the strengths, eliminating the weaknesses, exploiting opportunities and defending against each threat. Visitor Management (VM) should be implemented to control volume so as to limit numbers and encourage alternative visit timing and locations. During lean season when traffic is low, tourists should be advised to opt for lodges that support local communities and that support sound conservation practices; they should also be advised not to stay at lodges that do not offer such support. Codes of conduct should be laid out and resources should be adapted to. VM can be divided into two forms - hard measures and soft measures. To enhance revenues and to ensure regulations are adhered to, parking fees can be charged, or severe penalties imposed when traffic is found in no entry zones. Restrictions on vehicle size should also be imposed and Park entrance fees could be enhanced. These are hard measures and soft measures related to behavior through which desired behavior is encouraged instead of restricting undesirable activities. These include measures such as use of marketing and promotion material, signs, guided walks and information provision. In addition, travel philanthropy should be encouraged. Tour operators can be offered some incentives to create awareness of travel philanthropy. Weaknesses can be eliminated by involving all the stakeholders and particularly the local people, and by developing a sophisticated management plan for conservation. When all the stakeholders work in cohesion, the tension between stakeholders would reduce. Infrastructure has to be enhanced which could likely increase traffic to the Game Reserve. Here the carrying capacity issue would arise. Visitor management has to be based on the carrying capacity which implies that available ethical accommodation has to be identified and only such number of visitors accepted that can be accommodated in lodges that support responsible tourism. This would ensure healthy growth in the region. Too many visors can destroy the enjoyment and experience of theirs and others. Carrying capacity is also related to the number of people that would not adversely impact the environment. The optimum number of visitors or the carrying capacity can be determined based on the revenues desired, the lodging available, the ideal number before damage occurs to the environment. However, carrying capacity may limit the number of visitors and thereby reduce income levels. Opportunities can be exploited where the role of stakeholders such as the government, the Game Reserve management, the local banks and the tour operators gain significance. The government has to devise plans along with the Reserve management for conservation and wild life preservation. The local communities have to be involved so that their means of livelihood can be ascertained. Here banks play a critical role in financing projects that are viable. The tour operators can contribute to responsible tourism by educating the visitors and spreading awareness of travel philanthropy. Strategies to defend the threats also need the support of all the stakeholders. Tourism growth is essential but not at the expense of environmental degradation. Hotels, lodges and human habitats on the outskirts of the Reserve have to be reduced to facilitate migratory routes for wildlife. To encourage the local communities to engage in entrepreneurial ventures, education has to start at the grass root level. As of now development in the region has been uncontrolled which implies that proper planning and engagement of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have to be encouraged. Land should not be allotted for agriculture or sold to foreigners and this requires the involvement of the Reserve management as well as the government. If the migration pattern is affected (should be observed for two seasons) then the tourist season should be altered. Human trafficking can be reduced once income levels rise and education is provided to all. The role of the government is the most critical in encouraging responsible tourism. Standards and regulations may be set but implementation and adoption is important. Individual stakeholders must work in cohesion and cooperation to achieve the objectives of responsible tourism. The Reserve lacks technical and financial capacity and this requires planning by the Reserve management and the government. The government can incentivize the plans for responsible tourism by instituting rewards for contributing towards responsible tourism. These strategies conform to the guidelines provided by DEAT for responsible tourism such as involving the locals in decision-making and procuring goods and services locally. DEAT also suggests that development in the region should be sensitive to the environment. 10.0 Conclusion The Masai Mara game Reserve is one of the greatest attractions in the world but due to unplanned growth and development, it faces danger. Tourism in the area has been expanding but at the cost of the ecological balance. Grasslands have been damaged and wildlife has been impacted by speeding vehicles. Broken regulations, too many vehicles and too many lodges outside the Reserve are responsible for the degradation of region. While revenues have been forthcoming due to a large number of visitors, growth is not sustainable because the environment and the people continue to be affected. This requires responsible tourism where all the stakeholders have a critical role to play. Of Particular significance is the role of the tourists or visitors who appear to violate rules. Tour operators should implement travel philanthropy by encouraging visitors to donate their time. 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