Neuroimaging and Neuro-Induction Technologies Reclaim and Reverberate the Brains - Term Paper Example

The future of neuroimaging and neuro-stimulation technologies Affiliation Neuroimaging technology Neuropsychology is one of the specialized branches of psychology that focuses on understanding the anatomy and function of the brain concerning specific psychological processes (Dewsburry, 2012). Therefore, the neuropsychologist assesses, understands and modifies the brain-behavior relationships. The brain has two symmetrical parts namely the right and the left cerebral hemispheres (Bach-y Rita et al., 2010). Large bundles of nerve fibers that are called the corpus callosum connect the two. The right cerebral hemisphere gets sensory information from the left side of the brain, and the left hemisphere receives sensory information from the right side of the brain. The corpus callosum helps in sharing the information from the two hemispheres to bring meaning or interpretation (Bach-y Rita et al., 2010).When there is disharmony in relay of sensory information to the cerebral hemisphere and relay of motor information from the hemispheres, then there is abnormal physiology. Therefore, the understanding of the normal mechanism of the brain function gives the physiology of the brain. The behavior that result from the physiological functioning of the brain is termed as psychology that makes us conscious of ourselves, time and environment (Bach-y Rita et al., 2010). This implies that any problem in the brain structure and function will affect the way an individual`s behaviors leading to mental illness or psychiatric diagnosis. This information helps to bring an understanding on the foundation of physiological psychology and the clinical basis of neuropsychology. The understanding aids in distinguishing between the normal physiological psychology and abnormal physiological psychology. Analysis of the behavior bases in terms of brain mechanisms. Human beings are social beings, and they interact on their daily basis. This forms one of the unique characteristics with man, unlike the other animals. Behavioral neuroscience explores the physiological, developmental and genetic mechanisms of behavior in the human brain. For understanding fully the process how the brain is involved in behavior that develops in humans, then the brain has to be well understood (Mckhann, 2009). The same is required when learning the neuropsychology of the brain. Therefore, all this drives us to the modern technologies that can visualize the brain and enable psychologists and doctors to understand better the brain. All this have led to the evolution of neuroimaging technologies and neural stimulation technologies. This advanced technology guides and aids in diagnosis and determination of the extent of brain disease (Bechtel, 2008). Behavioral neuroscience has been used to understand medical disorders, both the clinical psychology and biological psychopathology. Some of the medical and psychiatric disorders include: Parkinson`s disease on of the degenerative disorder of the brain and spinal cord impairing both motor skills and speech. Alzheimer’s disease that is most common of the neurodegenerative disease of the old, clinical depression (Mckhann, 2009). Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that is manifested by impaired expression and perception with hallucinations and delusions. All this disorder requires both the modern technology and understanding of the neuropsychology for their management to be effective (Dewsburry, 2012). Treatment and diagnosis of these diseases in based on the nanotechnology that has been developed. The cognitive function of the brain pertains how one works with information in a meaningful way; apply gained information and ability to change the opinion about that information. In psychology, it is more of abstract ideas such as intelligence, learning and mind. All this revolve around the memory. Neuropsychology assessment is performed to assess the extent, which a particular skill is impaired, and determine which part of the brain has a lesion. Cognition functions and behavior are examined to assess the extent of the neuro-pathological process in the brain. This test has been effective in the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease and dementia (Mckhann, 2009). The test compares the normal person and the affected person to come out with the correct diagnosis. Controversial topics related to neuroimaging and neuro-stimulation technologies The following contemporary issues have been raised on the use of the neuroimaging and neuro-stimulation with reference to health and safety concerns. There is little of the exact effect of all the nanoparticles that an individual is exposed to therefore it is hard to determine the toxicity and health risks of such nanotechnology (De Kruijik et al, 2012).In regulatory issues, there are little international and national regulatory mechanisms that can monitor, and moderate the potential risks (Dewsburry, 2012). Other issues include intellectual property issues, research priorities, clinical translation concerns, privacy and confidentiality. For instance, neural prosthesis poses a wide range of ethical, policy and societal issues. This is from the demonstration of its safety and efficacy of the type of devices used in preclinical and clinical studies, trials and identification of intended consumers especially in people with disabilities such as deaf. Some devices may have no clinical usefulness. Therefore, and this may end up to be a waste of research resources that would have otherwise useful in other areas of study(De Kruijik et al, 2012).The use of Nano scale science in medicine such as neuroimaging leads to moral, social and political controversy. When research is controversial then proceeding with it becomes so hard because a lot of resistance is faced from the participants, society and the political sector. Another controversial topic is the use of neuroimaging in thought identification during research. This is a question of whether it is morally right or is undermining the privacy of the participant. This technique is used to read the mind of an individual (Bach-y Rita et al., 2010). Therefore, the contemporary and controversial issues range from ethical issues that are involved in almost all the research done. This arises when a question about the safety of the consumer is asked. They rarely miss when an innovation is set to start. Brain disorder and common manifestation Brain disorders form part of the leading causes of medical disability in developed countries according to World Health Organization, over 130 brain disorders and diseases involve the postsynaptic density (Blinder et al., 2011). The diseases include such as Alzheimer`s and Parkinson`s disease and neurodegenerative disorders and epileptic conditions and childhood developmental diseases that include learning disability and autism in children. This is related to the same set of proteins that are isolated in the postsynaptic membranes. The psychiatric disorders s share several genetic bases. The manifestation of brain dysfunction varies from one condition to another (Blinder et al., 2011). The most common manifestations include impaired language, inability to carry out fine motor functions such as writing and riding a bicycle, memory problems, inability to identify people and things previous were known, migraine headaches, neuropathic pain, and epilepsy among others (De Kruijik et al, 2012). The manifestations are based on abnormal physiology of the brain that results to such manifestations. The biochemical molecules, environmental factors and genetic factors all play a role in brain dysfunction and the resultant manifestations (Arun, Bharath, Pal & Singh, 2011) The future of neuroimaging technologies and neuro-stimulation techniques Neuroimaging is a modern technology that directly or indirectly forms the image of the structure, function of the brain. It helps further to understand the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system through the formation of images (Klein, 2011). Broadly neural imaging falls in two categories, structural imaging that deals with the brain structure and diagnosis of gross intracranial conditions and diseases such as tumors and injuries and the functional imaging that deals with diagnosis of fine lesions such as Alzheimer’s and metabolic diseases. It also involves neurological and cognitive psychology research and brain-computer interface building. After neurological examination, neuroimaging may be indicated as part of the treatment strategy of a patient with neurological disease or disorder (Saxena et al., 2012). Functional neuroimaging is a primary research tool in neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience. Common methods applied include functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), positron emission tomography (PET), near-infrared spectroscopic imaging (NIRSI) and magneto-encephalography (MEG). The measure of localized changes of blood flow in the cerebral hemispheres can be achieved by use of PET, NIRSI and fMRL. This noninvasive technique allows the doctors and researchers visualize brain activities or problems. Most of the techniques used are safe and acceptable worldwide. Other techniques include the computed tomography (CT scan), electroencephalography (EEG) and diffuse optical imaging (DOI) (Saxena et al., 2012). Neuro-stimulation techniques are mainly indicated in painful peripheral nerve disorders. Disorders of the peripheral nervous system pose a unique challenge to surgeons because such kind of pain is largely unresponsive to typical painkillers and other pain treatments. In this condition, an individual has pain in a particular peripheral nerve, and the only treatment is the one that targets the distribution of the affected nerve (Introduction to Psychology, 2014). Neuro-stimulation has evolved tremendously. It is seen as the best modality in the treatment of painful peripheral nerve disorders. This has led to cranial nerve stimulation and spinal nerve root stimulation. Spinal nerve stimulation has been used to treat diabetic neuropathy and ischemic limb pain. Deep brain stimulation has demonstrated good results in the treatment of movement diseases such as Parkinson`s disease, tremor, dystonia, tremor and affective disorders such as obsessive compulsive disorder and chronic pain (Barrow et al., 2012). Use Trans cranial magnetic stimulation that utilizes an electric shock does manage painful peripheral neuropathic pain. Currently, newer technologies have been used. These include the cochlear implants to provide partial hearing, the visual prosthesis to provide some vision, cardiac electro-stimulation devices to act as pacemaker and stimulation microelectrode technologies that deliver current to neurons (Saxena et al., 2012). Migraines treatment has been achieved through stimulation of the trigeminal nerve with external electrodes. All these technologies help to mend the mind and manipulate it to perform some functions. New developments have been put in place to have a better future of neuro-stimulation techniques. One of the developments that are considered crucial is miniaturization (Basser et al., 2010). This is aimed at making the devices smaller with time a good example is Bioness Stimrouter that is undergoing clinical trials. A six-inch lead peripheral nerve stimulator will be implanted under the skin. Future neuro-stimulation technologies and devices are to be even smaller that this such that it can be injected into the body via syringe. Another future advance that are likely to be in place to sustain use of the neuro-stimulation technique is to have improved coverage. This will help manage pain that is located in areas that the traditional spinal cord stimulators cannot cover. Some tests are done to determine whether a combination of both peripheral nerve and spinal cord stimulation can be used to improve coverage (Basser et al., 2010). Most of the neuro-stimulation techniques in place pose discomfort to the patient. One of the future advancement will be having devices that have reduced discomfort to the patient. This will incorporate devices that deliver high-frequency neuro-stimulation or rapid bursts neuro-stimulation. Each day uses of neuroimaging techniques advances; investigators are coming up with new applications. A new era that combines other procedures and neuroimaging techniques is likely to develop (Klein, 2011). This includes the development of more accurate biomarkers for diagnosis and treatment monitoring, technology that can detect and prevent early neuro-degradation. Conclusion In summary, neuropsychology is a branch that aims at discovering and understanding more about the function and structure of the nervous system (Dewsburry, 2012). The understanding of the cerebral hemisphere function and interpretation of the sensory information and sending of appropriate signals to the motor system are part of the normal physiology of the brain. However due to disruption of the nervous system biochemical and environmental factors, pathological processes set in. This alters the working of the brain resulting both medical and psychiatric diseases such as Alzheimer`s and Parkinson’s syndrome. Patients present with various signs and symptoms depending on the part of the brain that has been affected. This ranges from affective changes, movement impairment, cognitive dysfunction, memory and speech impairment, tremors, epilepsy among others. The doctors and surgeons need to determine the cause of any brain dysfunctions. In order to diagnose and treat some of the neural problem, neuroimaging and neuro-stimulation techniques are employed. The neuroimaging assists to determine the functional and structural problem in the nervous system as the neuro-stimulation techniques aid in therapy of nervous system problems. With advancements of technology, so are the neuro-techniques in order to make them relevance. All this however face ethical challenges. References Arun, M. P., Bharath, S. S., Pal, P., & Singh, G. G. (2011). Relationship of depression, disability, and quality of life in Parkinsons disease: A hospital-based case-control study. Neurology India, 59(2), 185-189. Bach-y-Rita, P. (2010). Is it possible to restore function with two percent surviving neural tissue? Journal of Integrated Neuro-science, 3,3–6 Barrow, I.M., Collins, J.N., & Britt, L.D. (2011a). The influence ofan auditory distraction on rapid naming after a mild traumaticbrain injury: A longitudinal study.Journal of Trauma,61,1142–1149 Basser, P.J., Mattiello,J., & LeBihan, D.(2010b).MR Diffusion tensor spectroscopy and imaging. 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