Harmful Effects of Computer Games on the Educational Outcomes of Children - Research Paper Example

Introduction The continued development of information communication technology has led to profound transformations in the way people interact with each other and the general environment. These transformations have not been limited to specific age or social classes since some of the technological discoveries are easily accessible to many in society. Among the groups that have embraced the new technology includes children in primary schools. Various technological applications target this group based on their needs for educational and play content. It has therefore, become common to find primary school children engaged in games either playing alone or competing with others. Schools have also adopted educational policies that take advantage of the interest primary school children have developed toward new technology to create educational content. The fact that parents have invested on computers has also played a role in increasing the interest of primary school children to new technology. However, the existing trend where it has become easy for children to access computers has led to a concern over the way the primary school children use them. Researchers are concerned that continued use of computers might have a negative impact on the development of children as they mould their behaviour around their favourite contents on the computer (Griffiths, 2000). Theme 1: Trends in Computer Use in Primary School Children Computer literacy levels for primary school children have been on the rise as computers and the internet continues to be easily accessible in homes. Kirinic, Vidacek, Hains and Lovrencic (2008) note children entering primary schools are already aware about the importance of computers as a source of information. The research claim 71 percent of children of ages between 5.5 and 6.5 have already been exposed to and used a computer at home. Additionally, Valentine and Marsh, Pattie (2005) note previous data from a research done in 2003 had indicated access to a home computer was increasing based on each key stage of children’s education. Based on this research, the level of computer access in England was found to range from 68 percent at key stage 1 to 87 percent at key stage 4. However, Valentine and Marsh, Pattie (2005) add that there research had indicated a significant improvement in these figures with the gap in computer access between key stages becoming smaller. Nevertheless, Valentine and Marsh, Pattie (2005) note having lower levels of access to home computers does not imply there was a statistical evidence of significant relationship between year group and number of items of technology at home. Research has indicated primary school children spent time on computers for activities that ranges from educational games and entertainment achieved through programs such as films, cartoons and entertainment games with the internet also playing an important role in facilitating both their educational and entertainment motives of using the internet (Kirinic, Vidacek, Hains and Lovrencic, 2008). The researchers also found 91 percent of children use a computer for playing games, 69.7 percent for educational related purposes while 24.9 percent also reported using their home computers to access the internet. H1: If access to computer increases usage, then primary school children who have access to computers have high computer literacy levels Theme 2: Impact of Computer Use on Primary School Children I) Cognitive Skills and Academic Performance Researchers have also explored the impact of using computers games on the children’s imaginations (Valkenburg, 2004; Belton, 2001; Valkenburg and Cantor, 2001). These studies have explored whether the use of screen media such as computers improves or constrain children’s imaginative responses, involvement in story making and their construction of creative imaginary play worlds. According to Belton (2001), ease of access to computer games has negative consequences for the development of the imaginative ability of children by limiting their responses to external agendas. McCarrick and Xiaoming (2007) claim introduction of computers to young children could be detrimental to their cognitive development as what is good for the adults might not necessarily be good for children. The negative effects of computers on children younger than fifteen years old is supported by Fuchs and Woessmann (2004) study that found children who used computers several hours per week performed significantly worse in both maths and reading compared to those who used them less. Christakis et al. (2004) focused on effects of computer use on attention noting exposure to screen media from as early as three led to some children developing symptoms similar to that of Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) by age seven. However, others have maintained there is value in children engaging in computer games especially those with educational applications. Valkenburg and Cantor (2001) argue computer applications with educational value such as when using adventure or fantasy role-playing games, can promote imagination while encouraging the realization of creative capacities in children. Studies have shown that computer games that are related to brain-wave biofeedback have a potential of assisting children overcome attention deficit disorders. Children with attention deficit can be trained by using a computer display how to control brain waves that are linked to focusing until they master the training. For children who can freely modulate these brain waves, the changes become automatic leading to improvements of grades, social relations in addition to organizational skills (Griffiths, 2002). The concept works by the use of computer display and a sensor that is attached to the child’s scalp. The computer displays a chosen type of game which is only played when the child is calm and focused. The images displayed can only respond to the brain activities of child with each step of the game being rewarding based on the right kind of brain activity needed for the child to progress to the next stage. When the child’s brain activity is right, this is rewarded by puzzle pieces falling into place. Overtime, a child with attention difficulties learns how to make the brain activities respond to what is needed for advancement into the next stage. Mastering how to control the brain activities using this computer games can then be transferred into other educational needs. Researchers have conducted studies to verify such studies in the educational outcomes of pupils by rewarding an attentive state of mind of students with attention-deficit through linking biofeedback to computer games. Griffiths (2002) notes the study was based on computer games played by 22 girls and boys of ages 9 to 13 all with attention deficit disorder. Half of those sampled were taken through biofeedback training while the rest played the modified computer games. Results of this experiment revealed that both groups of children had significant improvement in their daily brain-wave activities while they could also be attentive for longer periods of time. Parents also felt that both groups of children had improved their performance in school after the training but the difference was motivation where those trained on computer games had few absenteeism and no dropouts. However, researchers warn that not every game has the same effects on children with attention disorders as some of the games were actually found to have a negative effect on these children (Griffiths, 2002). Many of the studies that have indicated harmful effects of computer games on the educational outcomes of children have focused on non-educational games especially in relation to sexual, aggressive content (Goldstein, 2000; Sorensen Holmes and Jessen, 2000). Some studies have examined motor and spatial skills, simulation and tracking tasks. When boys who play aggressive game are compared to those playing non-aggressive game, those playing aggressive games are thought to demonstrate increased verbal and physical aggression towards both inanimate objects and others involved in the games during free play session (VanDeventer and White, 2002). However, these studies should not be taken as being conclusive given that many of them rely on only one aspect of the child’s engagement to report on their findings. Studies showing increased levels of aggression among children who participate in violent games have only relied on behavioural outcomes as a basis of their conclusions. A comprehensive study into how computer games affect the learning process of a child’s education should cover more areas of child development such as the child’s willingness to either help or hurt another child after watching computer game for the results to be conclusive (VanDeventer and White, 2002). The impact of a computer application on the cognitive skills and academic performance of primary school children depends on the contents of the application II) Risk of Obesity Most of the literature on child obesity identified the media as the main cause of childhood obesity due to their promotion of sedentary lifestyles (Roberts and Foehr, 2004). The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (2004) report notes the reason why attention has focused on the media is that the period, which saw a rise in childhood obesity, also recorded an increase in the number of programs that targeted children as main viewers. According to this report, such media covers video, internet, cable network channels, video gaming, and computer use. The report further asserts that in modern society, children use about five and a half hours daily on media, which is more time than they spent doing anything else and in comparison, is equal to a full time job. There are factors that predispose children who spent substantive amount of time using computers to obesity. Firstly, the time spent in front of the screen replaces other alternative activities that would have involved more physical movements. Therefore, by replacing activities that requires physical movements with computer use, children increasingly become susceptible to weight gain as there metabolic rate is lowered by lack of physical exercise (Vandewater, Shim and Caplovitz, 2004). Secondly, apart from reduced physical activities resulting from spending most of their free time on computers, some researchers have also explored the effects of food advertisement on the eating habits of the children (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004). The report notes the period, which saw an increase in the number of obese children also recorded increased advertisement targeting children especially those on candy, cereals, and fast foods. Children will request their parents to buy the foods that they see being advertised over the internet, which unfortunately in most cases consists of low nutritional value but high on sugar (Rosenthal, 2009). This advertisement play a big role in influencing what children prefer to eat to such extends as transforming children’s misconception about the nutritional values of some food types. It is claimed that seventy percent of children aged six to eight thought fast foods were more nutritious than food cooked at home (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004). If primary school children spent more time on computer then they are more likely to be overweight III) Effects on Social Development and Relationships The use of computers at home does not only influence children’s cognitive skills and academic performance, but has a further consequence in shaping social interactions of children (Jackson, Von Eye, Biocca, Barbatsis, Zhao and Fitzgerald, 2006). Researchers have explored the effect of computer use on children’s interactions in settings that involves parents, other adult and with peers. Having computers at home has been found to transform relations between children and adults since spending more time on the computer makes them computer savvy than parents and other adults around them. Consequently there are cases of reversal of the traditional parent-child relationship with children taking the role of a teacher in instructing parents how some computer applications work (Subrahmanyam et al, 2000). Additionally, Subrahmanyam et al (2000) argues the level of online interaction and communication where everyone is regarded equally despite their age might have a negative impact on the authority structures established in society between people of different ages. The consequence of this elimination is that children will tend to be less accepting of parental authority thereby affecting the overall social structures and relations. Social impact of computer use has been found to be informed by the length of time spent on computers and the type of engagement or application that children use at a particular time. Moderate length of time spent playing games has not been found to impact social interactions of children with adults and peers (Subrahmanyam et al, 2000).However, there are concerns that excessive use of computer by children particularly when playing aggressive games might impact on a child’s social skills (Cordes and Miller, 2000). Some researchers have determined spending more time playing violent games influences children’s social skills as it leads to aggressive behaviour in some situations. Subrahmanyam et al (2000) claim children who spend more time engaged with one leisure activity at the expense of alternative areas of engagements experienced negative outcomes in their social and academic outcomes. The researchers also note studies had indicated had indicated children who spent more than one hour daily playing computer games reported to feel less in control of their lives. These studies are in addition to those that found repeated engagement in violent computer games as contributing to increased aggressiveness and hostility and desensitize children to violence. Subrahmanyam et al (2000) note positive aspects of computer games that can promote social interactions especially when using educational games that encourage sharing, cooperation. However the authors also add that most of the games do not advocate sharing as they are based on competition and aggression. H2: there is a relationship between computer use and primary school children’s development of skills in social interaction and academic and healthy wellbeing Theme 3: Literature on Level of Use of Computers for Primary School Children Subrahmanyam, Kraut, Greenfield and Gross (2000) note the existence difference in computer use in primary school children based on gender with boys spending more time on home computers than girls. Subrahmanyam et al (2000) claims boys are heavier users of computers because they have higher interests in computer games compared to girls. Other studies have also found girls to be less interested in computer use than boys due to factors such as having less access to home computers than boys in addition to lack of games that they find interesting (Livingstone and Bovill, 2001; Wright et al 2001). The difference in home computer use according to Subrahmanyam et al (2000) is further transferred to schools with usage of computers by girls being lower than for boys with the author attributing this trend to the perception that computers belong more to boys. This trend pose a challenge to the efforts aimed at creating gender parity in computer usage with girls being disadvantaged especially in the acquisition of computer literacy skills necessary to put them academically and professionally on the same level as males, particularly in the technology-based careers. However, Subrahmanyam et al (2000) adds more recent data has indicated the difference in computer use between boys and girls was reducing as more girls become interested in computer applications. Holloway and Valentine, (2003) warn that having computer and internet access at home does not translate into computer use for primary school children. This is because some parents are concerned that children might damage software and hardware which are in some cases expensive to replace. Other concerns by the parents includes the safety of children while on-line, damage of computer screen to eyesight and the overall health impact of computer use (Facer, Furlong, Sutherland and Furlong, 2003; Holloway and Valentine, 2001; Kerawella and Crook, 2002). Further restrictions to computer use can be due to existing competition for the device within the household; with older members of the family having the right to use before the young ones. The location of home computers can also determine whether primary school children have access since having the device in an open area such as the sitting room increases access while computers that are placed in the parent’s bedroom makes it difficult for them to have access or to spent longer period using them (Holloway and Valentine, 2003). However primary school children who do not access the computer at home have chance to do so when in school or their friends’ homes. Some researchers have determined that children increasingly favour playing games on PC than outdoor games (Page and Page, 2003).Although patents would like to see their children engages in more outdoor games, the prevailing situations especially in urban areas make this impossible. Clements (2004) in her study note a number of parents noted lack of play space for their children as the reason more indoor games. The researcher also notes that many of the community play areas had been developed therefore, further traducing the available space to play. The available spaces are also full of restrictions that prevent access with most of the park having the ‘keep off the grass signs’. This scenario makes indoor activities fun for children as they can use the limited space in their house to engage in more interesting activities using the computer. Most parents accept the fact that their children increasingly spent less time in outdoor play than they did but the prevailing safety and space for play do not allow for more outdoor games for their primary school children (Clements, 2004). Parents will therefore find it easier to monitor their children when playing within the house than outdoor. The safety needs of the contemporary world makes technology e.g. computers an alternative to outdoor games since parents perceive this as easy to control. Parents are able to monitor and control the movements and activities their children engage in by purchasing software and applications that they deem suitable for their primary school children (Downey, Hayes and O'Neill, 2007). H3: there is a relationship between primary school children’s computer use behaviour and the home and school regulations Theme 4: Safeguards in Primarily School Children Use of Computers Their primary school children concern both parents and teachers about safe use of computers and the internet. However, most parents feel teachers should take a central role in creating safe computer and internet behaviour in their children (Valcke, Schellens, Van Keer and Gerarts, 2007). Family legislation of computer use for primary school children take different stances depending on establish distinct normative positions on contemporary media culture, ranging from the oppositional to fully integrationist (Hoover, Clark and Alters, 2004). Parents who think computers do not suit in their child development plans will instil a total ban on its usage while others will allocate a minimal time for computer use. Regulation of computer use especially in internet applications and games poses a great challenge to parents with Thornburgh and Lin (2002) reporting parents find it difficult to determine to what extent being exposed to inappropriate content is harmful. The researchers, nevertheless, note that parents are aware of the impact of for example extreme violence and sexually loaded content in the behavioural development of their children. On the other hand, parents who believe in an integrationist approach will find ways of integrating computer use for both play and educational purposes at home. Valcke et al (2007) argue intervention measures that are put in place to regulate children usage of the computer and internet is more effective when applied to control behaviour in children from age five to twelve. This implies intervention measures put in place when the children are first introduced to computer use are more effective than those put in place at later stages of child development. Application of laws on computer and internet use has been challenging to different governments in the world. Attempts to regulate internet use has in the past raised controversies as seen in the signing of the Child Online Protection Act 1998 (COPA) into law in the US. The law was supposed to restrict the distribution of harmful contents especially those that are pornographic to children but increased opposition of some of its legislative consequences led to its repeal. This was however followed by the passage of another legislation to strengthen the protection of children using the Internet. The new law under Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) has additional laws on children’s use of social media and mobile phone especially on companies targeting below 13 years of age children. The websites and phone applications that collect data based on photos and geographic locations from children are required to seek express permission from parents before activating use of applications (Bertot, Jaeger and Hansen, 2012). Laws to govern access to internet contents that are harmful to children have been difficult to put in place because of the controversies of applying community standards in the context of the web (Drotner and Livingstone, 2008). However, there is the Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA) enacted in 2000, which introduced a number of conditions for schools or libraries receiving discounts for Internet access or internal connections through the E-rate program. These providers of internet access to children in US have to abide by a number of initiatives that protect assess to inappropriate content for them to continue receiving some communications services and products at an affordable cost (Jaeger, Bertot and McClure, 2004). Hunter (2000) and Mitchell, Finkelhor and Wolak (2003) studies stress the need for schools need to work with both the parents and children in developing mechanisms that limit access to inappropriate content. Such an interventionist approach will develop safe internet use for children both when in schools and at home therefore achieving better results than when regulation of content is left of either the teacher or the parent alone. Researchers also conclude that available technical safeguards on computer use, which focuses on blocking inappropriate content, have shown low levels of success with primary school children. This failure has been attributed to a number of factors for stance the most effective filter software can only block between 10 percent and 20 percent of inappropriate content (Digital Chaperones for Kids, 2001). There is however a number of studies that have reported higher levels of efficiency with Hunter (2000) and Mitchell et al (2003) recording efficiency of 10 to 30 percent. However, the researchers also warn parents and teachers that technical solutions to unsuitable content viewing are not the best way to instil safe computer use behaviour for school children. Criticism of technical solutions have mostly focused on the efficacy of blocking unsuitable content using available filtering software which in most cases are seen as has achieving low outcomes (Greenfield, Rickwood and Tran, 2001). Given the difficulty in regulating computer use, parents and teachers are called upon to access proper frameworks that will integrate computers into both play and education will also considering social aspects of the child development. A number of researchers have focused their attention on the technologically based activities and the influence of information communication technologies on children's play. The development of computers has resulted in transformations in the form of play while also increasing the number of and access to plays in the lives of children (Sheridan and Pramling-Samuelsson, 2003). The increased access of primary school children to computers has led to researchers calling for the assessment of perceptions of the technology with Livingstone (2002) studying the debate over whether computers should be best thought of as toys or tools. H4: If content consumed by children are effectively regulated, then they will engage in safe computer use practices References Bertot, J. C., Jaeger, P. T., & Hansen, D. (2012) The impact of polices on government social media usage: Issues, challenges, and recommendations. Government Information Quarterly, 29(1), 30-40. 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