VHF Omni Directional Range - Assignment Example

Aircraft Systems Mohammed Aldhanhani 144323 Task 1. Commercial Air Transport (CAT) aircraft make use of instruments to assist navigation in various ways. (EFIS panel description not required) A) Describe a typical CAT aircraft navigation instrument display and principle of operation, relating this to any ground-based components. VHF Omni-directional Range/Tactical Air Navigation (VORTAC) A VORTAC is an aircraft navigation instrument that consists of two components, VOR and TACAN that give three services: VOR azimuth, TACAN azimuth and TACAN distance (DME) at one place. Having more than one components and operating frequencies and antenna systems, the VORTAC happens to be a unified navigational aid instrument. The two components are envisioned to be functioning simultaneously and giving the three services at the same time. A transmitted signal of VORTAC is identified by three-letter code transmission that is enjoined so that the pilot operating VOR azimuth and TACAN distance can be sure of both signals being received are actually from the same ground station. The frequency channels of the VHF Omni-directional Range and the Tactical Air Navigation at each VORTAC facility are doubled in line with an overall plan to make air navigation easier. B) Explain the differences between the ground and flight components of the instrument. The MFD gives information on the current route of the aircraft. The information obtained from the on board radar and other sensors on the ground as well as detection sensors are relayed to the crew to analyses. The ground components are always stationary while the flight components are moving as the aircraft moves. The ground components too do not have a display system since the display in the aircraft will be the most essential. It is therefore wise to have one in the pilot’s cabin and not on the ground components. C) List 3 of the navigation instruments displayed by CAT aircraft. The Altimeter is a navigation instrument whose work is to reflect the vertical height of the mean of sea level. This is corrected to the pressure of outside air. The pilot will have to set the right pressure and the altimeter will automatically identify the altitude that corresponds to the Mean of Sea Level. The instruments work more or less the same like the barometer. When the plane is ascending or descending, the pressure will also reduce and increase in that order. The aneroid capsule compares the pressure outside and the one inside. The pointer and linkage help display the altitude on the cockpit display instrument. Vertical speed Indicator is the instrument that measures the rate at which the aircraft is rising or descending. The speed is usually measured in feet per minute. When the plane is flying level, the Vertical Speed Indicator will be reading “0” feet per minute. The VSI compares the static pressure in the expandable capsule to the metred static pressure in the exterior of the capsule. The inside of capsule pressure changes so fast on the climbing or descending of the plane and the opposite is true because of the leak that has been metred. The VSI is important in ascertaining whether the plane is ascending or landing and the speed at which it does so. If there is a turbulent occurrence, the indications will be erroneous. Heading Indicator is an instrument that shows the direction of the plane to the pilot. It operates similar to how a magnetic compass operates. The heading indicator seeks north though it shows the precise heading of the plane when compared to a compass. The instrument can obtain its power of electricity of by being vacuum driven. As the plane moves right or left, the heading instrument will show the reading of between zero and 3590. 2. CAT aircraft make use of weather radar. a) Explain the requirement for weather radar in a CAT environment. Airborne weather radar is an excellent tool on aircraft used to avoid dangerous clouds, such as the dark cumulus nimbus. One is required to be able to recognize the spatial patterns of the radar displays as well as have a precise assessment of the situation of the weather. The information should be encoded so that is it aimed at coming up with solutions. A plan on the weather radar is also needed in order to identify and rectify and hitches that may occurs as a result of inconsistency. There should be a mental simulation conducted to come up with the expected results and alternatives. One should also have a good mental representation of the commercial aircraft environment and an ability to predict and suggest possible outcome. That means that the person should be having a very good specified knowledge about the weather radar. B) Explain the weather radar display, relating relevant characteristics of the display (e.g. range, colours etc.) to the flight path of the aircraft and atmospheric conditions. The weather radar display can have various colours on its reading pane. For instance, green will mean there is a light precipitation. Yellow, Red and Magenta will represent the medium, high and extremely heavy precipitations. The pilots should be able to analyse these facts and identify where danger may likely be. The presence of a black hole will mean that the there is an annotation by the active cells and thus the signal will not be visible well. The forecast of the weather conditions will enable the pilot predict the weather conditions in relation to what has been displayed. 3. In CAT aircraft there are differences between typical passenger, flight and cabin crew oxygen systems. a) Explain these differences with reference to roles, responsibilities and needs. The typical passenger crew oxygen system is that one meant to keep the passengers at the recommended health conditions. It is supposed to facilitate their breathing whenever it becomes necessary. The cabin crew is the oxygen system that is meant to maintain the pilots in their work and help them to communicate effectively. It is designed in a way that can make it serve this purpose. The flight crew oxygen system is meant for the people who are serving the passengers. Mostly, it is portable since they will be moving to serve the passengers and ensure that everything in the aircraft is in pace. figure1: Types of oxygen systems in an aircraft. b) Oxygen can be provided to passengers in more than one way. Briefly describe two types of passenger oxygen systems. There are either fixed or portable oxygen systems in a passenger aircraft. The fixed system obtains oxygen from a cylinder containing oxygen in gas form. The cylinder if pressurized. The cylinder can serve the flight crew as well but mostly it is assigned to the passengers. A manifold of oxygen is released from the cylinder to the passengers through one regulator. There is a valve that can separate the passengers’ compartment(s) as a shut off equipment. On the other hand, there is portable oxygen systems that pass the oxygen to the passengers through masks fitted on the face. The system is regulated and has storage compartment or tank. The portable systems will only be distributed when they are needed by the passengers, or when there is an emergence that requires so. c) Explain any differences between CAT aircraft and single or dual seat military aircraft crew oxygen provision. Commercial aircraft always have they oxygen provision done through the individual masks that are always kept above the seats of the passengers. They can be used when the conditions in the cabin cannot sustain healthy breathing. The oxygen is provided by the masks being fitted to the faces of the passengers. Military oxygen provisions mostly avoid the use of the heavy bottles of oxygen as well as the use of liquefied oxygen. In the military aircrafts, the bleed air is separated by the Cobham’s Molecular sieve which concentrated an abundant supply of oxygen for use by the military personnel. The heavy bottles are done away with and the method is cheap for such of aircrafts. 4. CAT aircraft are designed and certified to operate within a range of climactic conditions. a) What are the standard reference parameters for atmospheric conditions? Considering the atmospheric conditions prevalent at when about to ascend, the following can be referred to. The thunderstorms and other convective weather is one such condition. This is due to the fact that there are many catastrophic occurrences that can be hazardous. The hail, Heavy precipitation and tornadoes are really dangerous. According to NASDAC (National Aviation Safety Data Analysis Centre, thunderstorms were listed as a major cause to weather accidents. Convective weather should also be keenly observed since it can hinder the efficiency of the aircraft. Turbulence is another condition that should be taken into consideration. All planes are affected by turbulence. Aircrafts that fly in turbulent weather can be severely damaged. The Ceiling and Visibility are also weather conditions of hazardous nature to the aircrafts. They were cited as the cause of over 25% of the aviation accidents from 1989 to 1997. In flight icing is also another dangerous weather hazard and has a big impact on the efficient aircraft operations. This is especially very inconveniencing in the case of rerouting and delays in commercial aircraft. The commercial carriers should avoid the icing conditions and the ripple effect thereto. It should be understood too that it will increase costs. b) Explain the conditions that can lead to ice formation on an aircraft on the ground and in flight, how it may be detected and the possible consequences in these cases. Ground icing can result due to presence of frozen precipitations well as other conditions of icing that allow for its formation on the plane surfaces, engines and other places. In flight icing can come up when extremely cooled water condenses on the exterior structures of the aircrafts as they are flying. Ice protection systems that are recommended by the maker of the aircraft can be installed to curb this problem. The presence of ice can distort the free flow of air over the wings. This diminishes the lift of the wing. Consequently, it affects the capability of the plane to handle itself thus leading to dragging. Optical ice detector is a way of detecting ice on aircraft on an acrylic-glass cylinder. The device works as a combined optical spectrometer and optical switch. Rime ice is detected if the opacity registers changes. Clear ice is registered if there is a change in the refractive index. The electrical ice detectors have magneto-astrictive resonance changes that occur in a magnetic cylinder that have an axial vibration with an oscillating magnetism fields. The frequency of its resonance is lowered if there is an extra ice mass. The visual ice detection on the other hand is whereby the pilot uses his/her visual capabilities to detect the presence of ice. c) Describe a CAT aircraft airframe anti-icing system in the cruise or descent. The electro thermal system is usually used in commercial aircraft to liquefy ice or snow. Contrary to traditional windshield anti-ices that use occasional heating to do away with ice, the new device uses high voltage electric power that melts the frost away and it is swept away. The thermal system requires less power since a lot of energy is not used up in heating the object and the ice on it. d) Describe a CAT aircraft de-icing system in the cruise or descent. The windshield anti-ices are very essential especially when descending. There are two systems that are usually used here. There is a windshield that has been heated through electrical medium and there can also be a plate heated by the same means. The windshield that has been heated is able to melt the ice away and it is blown away having changed into molten form. A fluid spray bar is also another system whereby the pilot is able to prevent ice since it just right ahead of him or her. e) There are many precautions to be taken when de-icing aircraft on the ground. Explain the acronyms/terms HOT, TYPE 1 FLUID, OAT, PRECIPITATION, ICAO 9640, RE-HYDRATION, ANTI-ICING CODE, FREEZING POINT BUFFER, AOM and their relevance to de-icing procedures. Type I fluids are meant to melt away the frost that has formed on the surfaces of the plane. They however do not have so much protection on the refreezing part of the process. The buildup of frost of the aircraft surfaces cannot be protected by the type I fluid. HOT (Hold over time) is a guideline that is published yearly that gives information on the protection times given by the deicing fluids. It is developed on the Regresis analysis. HOT is a function of fluid dilution and ambient temperature. OAT (Outside Air Temperature) refers to the air temperature conditions outside the aircraft that can lead to the buildup of ice on the surface of the plane. Normally, temperature between zero degrees and -20 degrees can lead to the formation of ice. But the worst amongst all those is the one that occurs between the temperatures of zero and -10 degrees. A lot of keenness should be applied so that the place is not affected because of the extreme OAT. ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) had a document that had the number 9640 that acted as the manual for the deicing procedures on the aircrafts. It is useful since it makes one avoid problems relating to deicing processes. Rehydration is the situation where the deiced frost is rehydrated back to the molten form and affects the parts of the aircraft. It can cause inefficiency of the aircraft. It should be taken into consideration to avoid problems of such nature. AOM (Aircraft Operation Manual) is a guideline that is given by the maker of the aircraft on how it is operated. It gives information on the icing conditions it can bear. It also gives guidelines on how to carry out deicing procedures on it. 5. CAT aircraft maintenance operations on the environmental control, oxygen, fuel and related protection systems are carried out at regular intervals. These are explained in various documents and regulatory procedures, including the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM). Referring to a suitable CAT aircraft AMM (state the aircraft, ATA codes etc.) and other documents as required: a) What are the safety precautions to be observed when maintaining an aircraft pneumatic supply system? Any source of ignition should be avoided. This is to ensure that there is no fire outbreak that usually has devastating effects. The pneumatic system should be kept off dust and other particles which may make it inefficient. Any contamination should be avoided. The method of rectification should be in tandem with the procedure if the enterprise. The replacing of spare parts should be authenticated and services offered professionally. There should be calibrations, lubrications and testing of the aircraft to verify if it is in good condition. The inspection should be done in line with the procedures of the service of such aircraft and as recommended by maker of the aircraft. b) What are the safety precautions to be observed when maintaining oxygen systems? In the process of maintaining an oxygen systems, there are a number of precaution must observe. The equipment should be cleaned very well and kept clean always. Since the oil can bring about dirt particles which can contaminate the tanks of storage, the valves and the oxygen inhaler mask. The oxygen masks should be protected from dusty environment and excessive sunlight. They should also be tucked tightly to avoid alterations due to abrupt changes. The oxygen system should undergo regular checks to ascertain if it is still working properly. There should be no smoking since oxygen is a highly inflammable gas. The same case applies to the recharging of the equipment. Always, it is advisable to have the aircraft well-grounded before an oxygen load. The mixing and matching of components should be done cautiously to ensure that everything in place and the various components are compatible as required. c) What are the safety precautions to be observed when maintaining fuel systems? In the process of maintaining an aircraft fuel system, the refueled or the refueling equipment has the right type of fuel required. There should be no smoking whatsoever because that may lead to a fire breakout. In that vein, there should be “No Smoking” posters to alert any smoker of the same. The operation should not take place in a building. When refueling and the engines are running should only be done when the CCS (Closed Circuit System) is present on the pump and the receiving equipment. In addition to that, fuelling people should not be carrying lighter or any other ignition equipment to the refueling location. Splashing should be avoided as well. Task 2 1. Use diagrams to explain the function and operation of a basic CAT aircraft pitot-static system down to component level. Figure 1: Pitot-static system and instruments. a) Explain the basic operation of the airspeed indicator and at least 2 of the errors that may affect its readings. The airspeed indicator has a differential pressure gauge that is used to measure and show the difference relating to the pilot and the static pressure. The two pressures are level when the aircraft is at rest. While flying, the pilots pressure becomes more than the one on the static line. The airspeed pointer displays this difference on the airspeed indicator. The instrument has calibrations of miles per hour or nautical miles per hour. The air speed indicator is able to use both the pilot and the static system. Static pressure from is channelled into the airspeed case as the pilots pressure is introduced to the diaphragm. The expansion or contraction of the dynamic pressure is seen on one side of the diaphragm that is linked to a system of indication. The mechanical attachment is driven by the mechanical attachment to the airspeed needle. Figure 6: Airspeed indicator. The Airspeed indicator can have a number of errors. For instance, a blockage in the Pilot tube can alter the readings irrespective of the actual speeds. There can be an increase on the reading but the aircraft is still having a constant speed. This is because of the pressure in the pilot remaining the same despite the change in the atmospheric pressure. But a more serious error can result from the blocked static port. This error will have an effect on all the pilot static instruments. It arises in the case of airframe icing. The altimeter will consequently be made to freeze at the point where the blockage occurred. The VSI will be reading zero and will not move at all despite the changes in velocity. b) Explain the basic operation of the vertical speed indicator. The vertical speed indicator shows is the aircraft is rising or landing or if it is flying at level flight. It measures the speed in feet per minute (fpm). The Vertical Speed Indicator is a differential pressure instrument. It has a diaphragm that connects the linkage and the gearing to the static line. The air, at the existing pressure is received by the diaphragm. There is uncontrolled air to the diaphragm while the case gets the static pressure through a metered leak. When the aircraft is flying level, the readings will be zero. The readings will change as the aircraft flies or lands due to the changes in the pressure. Figure 4: Vertical speed indicator. c) Explain the consequences, in terms of instrument readings, of a blocked static source during the flight phases of take-off, climb, cruise and descent. In the case of descending, the pressure will remain constant for the pilot system. This is because the blockage and the diaphragm will be at the same pressure. However, when landing, there would be increased pressure against the diaphragm that will make it be pressed causing a display of reduced airspeed, which is not the case. On the other hand, when the aircraft will be ascending, the static pressure will reduce and the diaphragm expands causing the reading to show increased airspeed. 2. Demonstrate an understanding of the physical principles which govern the operation of air cycle and vapour cycle cooling systems and their associated components a) Explain the operating principles of an air cycle cooling pack with examples of typical air temperatures The cooling system is designed using the Brayton refrigeration cycle. A heat exchanger cools the already cooled air from the bleed system and afterwards the air is passed into a compressor that raises its temperature to about 210 degrees and then to another heat exchanger that reduces the temperature to almost 100 degrees. In the process, a lot of pressure is lost. The air is then subjected to a turbine and is released at temperatures of less than 5 degrees. This air is then mixed with hotter air to a temperature that is required for the cabin to operate at roughly 22degrees. Additional filters are there to eliminate the condensed water on the ground and in a climate of very low humidity. The condensed content is channelled into the stream of air of ram to assist HE effectiveness Figure 3: air-cooling cycle that is used in aircraft systems b) Explain the operating principles of an ejector pump. This is a pump employed to look for fuel from the interior places buy employing the venture principle. They don’t have parts that move. They depend on the fuel returning from the engine to again pump the very fuel. It runs from the beginning of the cycle or until the engine goes off or until another fuel tank is chosen using the cross feed switch. 3. Use diagrams to explain the function and operation of a CAT aircraft pressurisation system down to component level a) Provide a profile ‘plot’ of a typical CAT aircraft flight pressurisation cycle, including relevant indications of, and with an explanation of each, the following terms: i. Aircraft altitude and rate of climb ii. Cabin altitude and rate of climb iii. Maximum cabin altitude. The aircraft pressurization is meant to keep the passengers safe at the high altitudes. It pushes air into the cabin which has been bled by the engines through the compressors. The air that has been released is then made cool, regulated to the right humidity and mixed with the air that is already in circulation to make it fit for the breathing of the passengers. The pressurization is essential especially at altitudes of over 10000ft above MSL (Mean Sea Level). The pressurization keeps the cabin altitude safe even that of the outside conditions may not be. The cabin pressure is the similar effective of the altitude of the cabin. Height 35000 ft. 25000 15000 10000 cabin altitude Climb Distance b) Describe the operation of the cabin pressure outflow valve. This is a valve that helps in keeping the cabin in the right pressure. It regulates the quantity of air to be exited from the cabin and thus keep the required pressure. This is why the valve is important safety equipment since it avoids over pressurization and under pressurization. If for instance there is a high differential pressure, the outflow valve will correct the issues when the safety valve is opened and thus the pressure in the cabin is reduced. When the pressure in the cabin is low, especially when at rest, there is a negative valve that will correct it. c) What is the meaning of the term ‘maximum cabin pressure differential’ (P) and give at least one example, citing the aircraft, of a typical value for P. Maximum Cabin differential pressure is the highest difference between the outside pressure and inside the cabin pressure of a pressurized aircraft. It is always good if the cabin pressure is almost the same as the sea level which is normally at 6000 to 8000ft. This is supposed to take place for the passengers to be comfortable. The Boeing 737 for instance has a maximum differential pressure capability of 9.24psd. It can be able to sustain an 8000ft condition very well. 4. The compass on-board an aircraft may be difficult to read at times. b) What instrument is used normally to confirm heading? Heading Indicator is a navigation instrument that is used to confirm the heading of the aircraft. Some texts call it the direction indicator. b) Compare the operation of this instrument, its possible power supplies, and its limitations in a light aircraft to the CAT aircraft equivalent. The heading indicator uses a gyroscope to work. The gyroscope is attached to an erection mechanism to the base of the aircraft’s horizontal. The gyroscope is powered by electricity or by a vacuum pump powered by the engine of the aircraft. Small errors can be made because of hitches in the balancing; the instrument has to be realigned again and again. The latitude hints of the drift that the gyro has undergone. The transport wonder can also cause another drift. To eliminate this, in relation to a light aircraft, a latitude nut can be put in place to influence a wander in the instrument. Since the earth rotates at 15 minutes per degree, the realignment can be done every eleven to fifteen minutes in between the checks on the flight. 5. CAT aircraft retain some basic instrumentation for possible use in an emergency. a) List these, indicating for each one where they are found on the flight deck and explain their general principles of operation. When alarmed the emergency exit equipment will show some illuminations. This is especially if power is lost. The flight crew may also switch it on to respond to a certain situation. If there is a loss of power the Ni Cad batteries will run for an hour. The fire extinguishers held by hand are also emergence equipment that is very essential. They are used while held the two hands and their type and quantity should be fit for the various types of fire. They should also be designed in a way that minimizes toxicity of the concentration of the gas. Flight crew oxygen can also be strategically placed for the purposes of emergence. They are meant to ensure that there is an undisturbed supply of oxygen even though there is an obstruction. The supply system should be having masks that can be fitted to the face for the supply to go on smoothly. b) One of these instruments requires regular re-calibration in a ground-based process that results in completion of a ‘deviation card’. Which instrument is this, what is the name of the process and list 3 occasions when the process is required to be completed? The instrument in question is used under the Visual Flight rules that control the methods a pilot uses in flying. The VFR requires a pilot to be able to see outside the cockpit, to control the aircrafts altitude, navigate, and avoid obstacles and other aircraft. This instrument is the magnetic compass attached to a deviation card that is used to show the pilot the corrections to be made to the compass reading to obtain the magnetic direction. The default calibration has to be performed each and every time before the plane takes off. An instance of the three occasions is when the pilot is likely to fly at night, on foggy weather or unpredictable low flying terrain. It eases navigation through advising the pilot on appropriate directions to take based on the compass. 6. CAT aircraft systems include warnings on the flight deck to assist safe operation of these systems, particularly in flight. Heat, voltage, current, flow and pressure outside design limitations in some systems may result in warnings. A diagnosis process will then need to be followed, perhaps resulting in a tech.log entry. Choose any three warnings that may be displayed for an aircraft (specify) and for each one: a. Illustrate the warning caption and explain its meaning Warnings Caused by heat, pressure or electrical failure The captions in the warning systems have various colours captions that have various meanings. For instance, the red lights will communicate a critical situation that needs quick response. The amber lights will be warning the flight crew to be keen and carry out some corrections. Blue lights will be advising the crew on the valve state, their positions or any other equipment disagreements. The green lights will be showing that things are okay and in good condition. The stall warning will come up when the AC power is required. The same can also come up when they is no hydraulic pressure. That will mean that the flaps have drooped. The matter can be solved by switching the electric pump on so that the flaps can be retracted. Aural Warnings in the cabin include the fire bells and the taking off configurations warnings. The cabin altitude can also result in such a warning. The warning can be corrected if the conditions of the plane are rectified. Noise callout can also be a warning depending on the volume. This can come up when the aircraft is at a VmO of 330kts and of 10000ft. b. Explain the appropriate checklist/diagnosis procedure The procedure for checking for the warnings involves the constant check and maintenance of the flight mechanics. The check in and out steps are supposed to be implemented to achieve the quality of the flight. Checking of the following is vital: aircraft load, the switches, the fuel booster, the landing gear, the hydraulic pump and the engine operation during flight at different altitude. The constant maintenance and check-ups after landing of the vital parts like engine and plane wings and electrical equipment is essential in preserving a fit aeroplane. c. Show a possible location of the fault in a suitable diagram. Centralised Warning Panel In the figurative exemplary warning above the showcased feature represents an event where supposedly if the altitude was to get to unmanageable levels, the electrical contacts initiate the illumination of a warning caption in the cabin that is audio. If the pressure in the cabin fails, the cabin altitude switch will give a (C/PR) illumination. The warning caption will remain lit until the pressure problem has been fixed. The plane should be flown in the right altitude so that the problem does not occur again and cause issues with the passengers. References Kaplan E., (1996) Understanding GPS, Principles and Applications Reading, MA Bartech House Availability requirements for Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) T. Urdu Proc. ION GPS 2002 Preparation for GBAS at Branschweig research airport—First flight test results K., Butzmühlen Proc. ION Nat. Tech. Meeting 2006 Signal deformation monitoring scheme implemented in a prototype local area augmentation system ground installation F., Liu et al. Proc. 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