Biochemistry and Enzyme Technology - Essay Example

[The [The [The Biochemistry For centuries humans have used microorganisms to produce foods and drinks without understanding the microbial processes underlying their production. In recent years the understanding of the biosynthetic pathways and regulatory control mechanisms used by microorganisms for production of several metabolites has been increased by developing the knowledge of biochemistry of industrially important organisms. Notable biotechnologies for food processing include fermentation technology, enzyme technology and monoclonal antibody technology. Beneficial microbes participate in fermentation processes, producing many useful metabolites such as enzymes, organic acids, solvents, vitamins, amino acids, antibiotics, growth regulators, flavors and nutritious foods. Some leading food bioprocessing technologies are dairy processing, alcohol and beverage processing. Production of alcoholic beverages include: wine, beer, whiskey, rum, shake, etc. utilizing microorganisms like Clostridium acetobutylicum, Lecuonostoc mesenteroides, Aspergillus oryzae, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Rizopus sp., Mucor sp., etc. Biotechnologically produced organic acids like citric acid, acetic acid, gluconic acid, D-Lactic acid, fumaric acid, etc. also have very high market value. The application of biochemistry can result in (a) new ways of producing existing products with the use of new inputs, and (b) new ways of producing new products. Examples of the former include the production of gasoline from ethanol which in turn is produced from sugar; the production of insulin using recombinant DNA technology; the production of hepatitis B vaccine using recombinant DNA technology and the extraction of copper using mineral leaching bacteria. The alternative inputs are oil for gasoline, porcine pancreases for insulin, human blood for hepatitis vaccine, and the conventional mining techniques for copper. Examples of the latter include possible medicinal substances which are produced in minute quantity in the human body and which cannot be synthesized such as insulin, interleukin or Tissue Plasminogen Activator (TPA). A wide variety of microorganisms are now being employed as tools in biochemistry to produce useful products or services. Raw materials can be converted to useful finished products both by ordinary chemical processes and by biological means. Generally, the costs of chemical conversion are quite high as the reactions require high temperature or pressure. In contrast, biological alternatives, using microbes or cultured animal or plant cells, operate at physiologically normal conditions of temperature, pressure, pH etc. During the next few decades biochemistry would have overtaken chemical technology, and many such chemicals which are today produced chemically would be made through biochemistry. Enzyme technology is a quarter of sizeable current concentration and expansion. Today, enzyme technologies have four distinct areas of application: in cosmetics, therapy, the food and feed industry, and for diagnostic purposes. One very important recent application is the production of foodstuffs from non-traditional raw materials: for instance, the development of the sweetener, high fructose corn syrup (HFCS), also called isoglucose. Another recent application is the use of phytase in animal feed. Nowadays, interest in the traditional fermentation technology for food processing has greatly increased because of emphasis placed upon plant materials as human foods. Single-cell protein (SCP) is term generally accepted to mean the microbial cells (algae, bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi) grown and harvested for animal or human food. During World War II, when there were shortages in proteins and vitamins in the diet, the Germans produced yeasts and a mold (Geotrichum candidum) in some quantity for food. Research on SCP has been stimulated by a concern over the eventual food crisis or food shortages that will occur if the world's population is not controlled. Many scientists believe that the use of microbial fermentations and the development of an industry to produce and supply SCP are possible solutions to meet a shortage of protein if and when the amount of protein produced or obtained by agriculture and fishing becomes insufficient. The roots of molecular biology were established only after the British biophysicist Francis Crick and the American biochemist James Watson, in 1953, proposed the structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule which is well known as the chemical bearer of genetic information of most of the organisms. We really began understanding and utilizing molecular biochemistry (or gene biochemistry) only after recombinant DNA technology was developed in 1970's. Daniel Nathans (in 1971) of John Hopkins University utilized the restriction enzyme to split DNA of monkey tumor virus, Simian Virus (SV40). Recombinant DNA technology, often referred to as genetic engineering or gene manipulation, involves extraction of a particular gene of interest form one organism and then insertion of the gene into other organisms. Genetic manipulation may be defined as the extra cellular (i.e. in vitro) creation of new forms of arrangements of DNA in such a way as to allow the incorporation or continued propagation of altered genetic condition in nature. Among the first scientist to attempt genetic manipulation was Paul Berg of Stanford University who in 1971 along with his co-workers opened the DNA molecule of SV40 and spliced it into a bacterial chromosome and constructed the first recombinant DNA molecule. The genetic engineering techniques are useful tools for genetic research. They can help to gain in the structure, function and regulation of genes. They also help to prepare the physical maps of viral genome. Maps of several viruses have been made available like SV40, Polyoma virus and adenovirus. Another goal in genetic engineering is to design super bug which can degrade most of the major hydrocarbon components of petroleum. The different strains of Pseudomonas putida contain a plasmid which has genes coding for enzymes that digest a single family of hydrocarbons. By crossing the various strains of this bacterium, a super bug has been created. The multiplasmid bacterium is able to grow on a diet of crude oil. The super bug has potential for clearing up oil spills. Biochemistry is widely used in pharmacy to create more efficient and less expensive drugs. Recombinant DNA technology is used for production of specific enzymes, which enhance the rate of production of particular range of antibodies in the organism. The hormones such as somatostatin, insulin and the human growth hormone can be synthesized easily and cheaply. The first human hormone to be synthesized by genetic engineering was somatostatin. Somatostatin is brain hormone originating from hypothalamus. It acts to inhabit the release of human growth hormone and insulin is related to treatment of diabetes, pancreatis and few other conditions. Genetech, a California based company, has produced human growth hormone (hGH) from genetically engineered bacteria. Antibiotics are chemical substances produced by several microorganisms. Recombinant DNA technology has helped in increased production of antibiotics; for example, the rate of penicillin produced at present is about 150,000 unit/ml against about 10 unit/ml in 1950s. Interferon, an anti-viral protein, is prepared from the mammalian cells by recombinant DNA technology. By cloning cDNA to genes for human interferon, it has been found that there are large number of interferon differing in amino acid sequences and properties. A large number of interferon is prepared in yeast cells by fermentation process. Shrof expects that in the near future vaccines will come in more convenient ways "some will come in the form of mouthwash; others will be swallowed in time-release capsules, avoiding the need for boosters." (Shrof 57) Genetic diseases could be treated through the use of genetic engineering. The transgenic cells are then planted into the organism, resulting in a cure of the disorder. Cloning is a relatively new sector of biochemistry, but it promises answers to very important problems related to surgery. Another revolutionizing tool of biochemistry is DNA fingerprinting. DNA fingerprints are useful in several applications of human health care research, as well as in the justice system. DNA fingerprints helps to link suspects to biological evidence - blood or semen stains, hair, or items of clothing - found at the scene of a crime and help in solving crime. Another important use of DNA fingerprints in the court system is to establish paternity in custody and child support litigation. The U.S. armed services have just begun a program to collect DNA fingerprints from all personnel for use later, in case they are needed to identify casualties or persons missing in action or for suspect verification. Due to the revolutionary development of biochemistry during last couple of decades agriculture has drastically advanced. Sensational achievements were made in both plant cultivation and animal husbandry. Plants have been improved in four different ways: Enhanced potential for more vigorous growth and increasing yields Increased resistance to natural predators and pests, including insects and disease-causing microorganisms. Production of hybrids exhibiting a combination of superior traits derived from two different strains or even different species Selection of genetic variants with desirable qualities such as increased protein value, increased content of limiting amino acids, which are essential in the human diet, or smaller plant size, reducing vulnerability to adverse weather condition. Another important area of biochemistry is improvement of livestock. Improvement in disease control, efficiency of reproduction, yields of livestock products i.e. meat, milk, wool, eggs, composition of livestock products i.e. leaner meat, feed value of low quality feeds i.e. straw; are some of the applications of biochemistry. One of the major scientific revolutions of the twentieth century was the breaking of the genetic code and the development of tools that enable scientists to probe the molecules of life with incredible precision. Now, in the twenty-first century, these developments in biology are being married with the use of ever-increasing computer power to help us face the challenges that the new century brings. Bioinformatics is the name given to the new discipline that has emerged at the interface of biology and computing. Huge amount of genetic data (DNA, RNA, amino acid and protein sequences) of various organisms, form bacteria to humans, being generated worldwide is stored in a computer database. Various computer tools are used to predict protein structure which is valuable information for development of vaccines, diagnostic tools as well as more effective drugs. Bioinformatics can help in easy and early detection of various diseases like cancer, diabetes and many more with the help of microarray chips (microarrays are miniature arrays of gene fragments attached to glass slides). Bioinformatics also helps scientists to construct phylogenetic tree based on molecular biology and ultimately contribute in the study of evolution. Biochemistry has a promising future. In future biochemistry will be accredited for some revolutionary technology. Recent advances in bioenergy, bioremediation, synthetic biology, DNA computers, virtual cell, genomics, proteomics, bioinformatics and bio-nanotechnology have made biochemistry even more powerful. Recent discovery of conduction of electricity by DNA and its behavior as a superconductor has opened a new realm in modern science. In future biochemistry will have profound impact in world economy. Biochemistry is a golden tool to solve some of the key global problems like global epidemic, fatal diseases, global warming, rising petroleum fuel crisis and above all poverty. Knowledge leads to technological developments which can lead to further knowledge which would not have been possible to obtain without having developed that particular technology. In some respects the concept mirrors that of positive feedback: take the example of voltage gated Na+ channels in the axolemma opening on depolarization to greater and greater extents, resulting in further depolarization, causing further opening of channels, etc. To illustrate the interdependence of the relationship between fact and method; consider brain imaging. Existing technology removes the need for invasive techniques; this is a good example of technology (in the form of scientific equipment) removing obstacles in the race to further scientific knowledge. The nervous system in living humans can be observed using such technology as will be outlined. Limits on the knowledge that can be extracted from situations are reduced with technology. X-rays; these are waves of radiation of a very high frequency which are not absorbed as well by bodily tissues as radiation of frequencies such as that of visible light. This is why X-rays can "see through" flesh, unlike our eyes. X-ray photons have much higher energy than photons of visible light - this is why there are harmful side-effects. Ionization of tissues can cause cancerous growths. For all the positive effects of biochemistry there are some possible side effects. Nobody knows what ecological hazards could be caused by transgenic organisms. Some even speculate that some transgenic organisms could fall into wrong hands to develop bioweapons. The opposition of genetic engineering says that - the science is very young and needs a lot more research. The path from a test tube to the field is not a straight highway. Both intellectual and financial resources should be realized before new discoveries pave their way to industrial applications. In conclusion, biochemistry has also proved to be extremely productive and innovative and 21st century should be the century of biochemistry. Taking the idea of biochemical technology to represent evidence of previous knowledge, it cannot actually exist in the absence of the knowledge used to create it; therefore this can be used as a conceptual start point. Technology and methods of approaching problems must therefore be indicators of development. It could also be argued that every action is affected by those that preceded it, i.e. that all ideas are modifications of other pre-existing ideas rather than isolated flashes of inspiration. If this is indeed the case, then biochemical knowledge and methodological advancements are inextricably linked to each other; i.e. completely dependent on one another. So the response to the question of the title would be that the advancement of biochemistry is completely dependent upon methodological advancements. However, if the idea is considered at the level of achievements rather than ethereal concepts, it would seem that biochemical knowledge can exist without the sophistication of methodological advancement. Take for example a chimpanzee utilizing a stick to "fish" for ants. The stick is an example of technology, the use of the stick an example of learning or previous knowledge. But consider a human example of technology; a computer. The advanced technology incorporated in the CPU will have required a certain amount of specific knowledge in order for it to exist in the first place. This implies that knowledge itself can stand alone, but that certain "methods" (in the case of the computer the evolution of electronics) must have at some stage occurred to develop it. Knowledge cannot advance without the improved methods to support it, likewise technology cannot advance without the knowledge required to create it. Bibliography Agarwal, V. K. (2000). Molecular Biology. New Delhi: S. Chand. Agarwal, V. K. and P. S. Verma. (2000). Concepts of Molecular Biology. New Delhi: S. Chand Cummings, Michael R., and Williams S. Klug. (2004) Concepts of Genetics. New Delhi: Pearson Education. Dubey, R.C. (2006). A Textbook of Biochemistry. New Delhi: S. Chand. Ferber, Dan. "The New Science of Cell Hacking." Popular Science, June 2004. pp: 43-44 Frazier, W. C. and D. C. Westhoff. (1993). Food Microbiology. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. Gibbs, W. "Cybernetic Cells." Scientific American, Aug. 2001. pp: 54-57 Hanson, Earl D. (1983) Recombinant DNA Research and the Human Prospect. Washington, DC. American Chemical Society. Kumar, H.D. (2003). Modern Concepts of Biochemistry. New Delhi: Vikash Publishing House Lopez, D. A., R. M. Williams., and K. Michlke. (1994). Enzymes: The Foundation of Life. The Neville Press. Lund, Pete. "What is Bioinformatics'" Bioscience Course Manual, The University of Birmingham. pp: 35 Purohit, S. (2004) Biochemistry: Fundamental and Applications. India: Agrobios. Purohit, S. (2005) Agricultural Biochemistry. India: Agrobios. Schesinger, Hank. "DNA Conductor." Popular Science, Aug. 1999. pp: 47 Shrof, Joannie M. "Miracle Vaccines." US News & World Report, 23 Nov. 1998. pp: 157 Singh, Mahabir, and Sandeep Ahlawat. "Applied Genetics." MTBiology Today, April 2004: pp: 27-29. Read More