Hooliganism on and outside of the Football Field - Essay Example

FOOTBALL HOOLIGANISM The sport that has the most appeal to spectators in the world is professional football. Attending a football match has always been considered a distinctly male pastime. In the U.K, it is estimated that 88 per cent of spectators at football match venues are males. Notable examples of are eminent Scottish clubs Rangers and Celtic that each attract between 40,000 to 50,000 spectators1, and famous English Premier League clubs Manchester United, Liverpool, Leeds United and Newcastle United that have an average home match attendance of 40,000.2 I) DEFINITON OF FOOTBALL HOOLIGANISM The term ‘Football Hooliganism’ has no precise definition. Some believe the term surfaced in London police reports in 1898 where it was used to describe violent street 1: Fact Sheet 1 – Football & Football Hooliganism: University of Leicester 2. PENNANT, C. Congratulations, You Have Just Met the I.C.F. Page 51 gangs.3 The European Union defines Football Hooliganism as “having an anti-social and violent minority of fans that spoil the enjoyment of the vast majority.”4 Football Hooliganism occurs in two forms. The first takes place at the spur of the moment, with no premeditation, without apparent external cause, and involves low amounts of disorder created by fans at or near venues of football matches. This type of Football Hooliganism usually takes place at away matches played by England or other national team. The second form is carried out with calculated and conscious design by organised gangs {called ‘firms’} of individuals who affiliate themselves to football clubs and use physical violence against ‘firms’ of rival clubs either at the venue where their teams are playing a match, or at a future time.5 Football hooligans tend to utilize graphic metaphors of sexual power {such as ‘we fucked them’ and ‘we shagged them’} to underline their aggressive masculinity.6 While there may be differences in opinion about the definition of Football Hooliganism, there is no doubt about one thing: it is detrimental to society and it reveals a negative side of society. Many researchers attribute Football Hooliganism to social groups largely unaffected by the civilising process.7 This aspect is well articulated by Jose Mourinho {former manager of the Portuguese team Porto, and until recently the very successful manager of the English team Chelsea} when he said: “The negative side of football [shows] the negative side of our society. People sometimes go to football and bring to it the negative aspects of our society”.8 II) FOOTBALL HOOLIGANISM BEFORE THE 17TH CENTURY 3: Football Hooliganism: Politics.co.uk. 4: Preventing Football Hooliganism: Football Network Organisation. 5: Fig Fact-Sheet Four – Hooliganism: Football Industry Group. 6: GIULIANOTTI, R. Football: A Sociology of the Global Game. Page 155 7: GIULIANOTTI, R. Football: A Sociology of the Global Game. Page 45 8: Jose Mourinho Quotes: Brainy Quotes The game of football originated in England during the 13th century. Violence has been associated with the game from its inception. Football began as a ‘folk’ game usually played on holy days {notably Shrove Tuesdays}. In the beginning it sparked off only slightly organised violence between young men of adjacent villages and towns to whom the football teams belonged. The football {in those preliminary days it was a leather-covered inflated pig’s bladder} was used as a semi-legitimate way of resolving old disputes and land disagreements, as well as indulging in ‘manly’ tribal hostile behaviour. This initial pattern of violence, undertaken when the perpetrators were fortified by prolonged sessions of drinking, often caused grievous injuries and even death to some participants. This early form of Football Hooliganism that represented a bloodier version of the malady as it later came to be known, was surprisingly not considered extraordinary or evil, but “an equilibrating type of leisure activity deeply woven into the warp and woof of society.”9 The tolerant attitude towards Football Hooliganism in 13th century U.K changed during the 14th century as an increasing number of people began calling for restraints to be imposed on football. Strangely, the calls for control were not so much due to moral uneasiness at Football Hooliganism, but due to commercial reasons, namely, because business was adversely affected in market towns on match days. The city of London led the opposition against football. When football matches were first played in London by rival teams of apprentices in 1314, Nicholas Farndon, the Mayor of London, issued a proclamation that due to “certain tumults arising from the striking of great footballs in the field of the public,” which could lead to “many evils,” people were forbidden to play the 9: Football Violence in History: Social Issues Research Centre. game “upon pain of imprisonment.” However, the effect of the Mayor’s formal announcement was limited, and despite several arrests, football games went on. Between 1314 and 1410 no less than 15 additional endeavours were made by the authorities to impose restraints on football in London. The English Royalty also threw its weight behind the opposition to football; during the 15th century, two Kings of England issued edicts against football – King Edward IV in 1477 and King Henry VII in 1496. Similar bans were imposed in other parts of England and Scotland {such as the ban in Liverpool in 1555}, but they too proved to be generally ineffective. Football continued to be played and Football Hooliganism continued to exist. In 1539, the yearly football match in Chester was halted irrevocably on account of violence caused by hooligans among spectators. In 1579, after a football match between Chesterton and Cambridge was played, hooligans among fans of the former team attacked the fans of Cambridge and beat them with sticks. In 1581, a fan was killed by two rival team hooligans during a football match at Evanses Feld at Southemyms.10 III) FOOTBALL HOOLIGANISM DURING THE 17TH & 18TH CENTURIES Football during the 17th century was characterised by two features. Firstly, there were many incidents where hundreds of football hooligans demolished drainage ditches and caused chaos in towns. In 1638, rampaging football hooligans damaged drainage ditches in the Isle of Ely. In 1694, it was the turn of Fenland to have its draining ditches destroyed by football hooligans. Secondly, young Scots associated football matches with “border raids and forays.” Several football matches preceded a raid against England “for the same hot-headed young men were game for both with the result that English 10: Football Violence in History: Social Issues Research Centre. authorities began keeping a vigilant eye on Scottish footballers.”11 Football during the 18th century took on a distinctive political slant. For example, in 1740, a football match in Kettering supported by around 500 fans of each team was in fact a pre-planned food riot; after the match, a local mill was destroyed and looted. Records also indicate football matches were held for the sole purpose of destroying boundary fences at West Hadden and Holland Fen. In 1797, the customary Shrove Tuesday football match in Kingston-upon-Thames culminated in a riot by football hooligans when 3 fans were arrested by the authorities. The overall result was that the law authorities started becoming more and more apprehensive.12 IV) FOOTBALL HOOLIGANISM DURING THE 19TH CENTURY Football Hooliganism continued during the 19th century. In 1846, a football match at Derby was halted irrevocably due to excessive violence by football hooligans; the Derby Mayor sustained injuries in the melee and two troops of dragoons were ultimately called in to control the hooligans. In 1884, a group of football hooligans travelling to watch a match between Newton Heath and Preston North End beat two railway employees into unconsciousness at Wigan railway station. That same year, after a match between Preston North End and Bolton Wanderers, hooligans from the former team’s fans attacked not only the Wanderers’ fans, but also its players. In 1885, after a match between Aston Villa and Preston North End, hooligans from the former team’s fans assaulted Preston team players with sticks and stones. In 1886, hooligans from among fans of Preston North End and Queens Park Rangers teams fought a pitched battle at a railway station. In 1889, after a match between Small Heath and West Bromwich Albion, hooligans from fans of Small 11: Football Violence in History: Social Issues Research Centre. 12: Ibid. Heath attacked West Bromwich Albion’s fans. That same year, hooligans amongst fans of Nantwich and Crew fought a pitched battle at Middlewich railway station. In 1893, a match between Nottingham Forest and West Bromwich Albion was halted irrevocably when hooligans from among fans of the former team stormed on to the playing field and attacked West Bromwich Albion fans. In 1899, after a match between Loughborough Corinthians and West Bromwich Albion at Shepshed, the Corinthians team players were assaulted with stones by hooligans among fans of the latter team.13 However, despite the above mentioned sporadic instances of Football Hooliganism, the urbanisation and industrialisation of the 19th century brought about a radical change in English football, transforming it from an uncontrolled fight on an improperly-defined field to a modern game controlled by rules, ultimately limiting the habitual battlefield game into smaller and smaller arenas. It was in one such arena {a public school in England} that the transformation process began. The uncontrollability of wild and brutal football played by students became the reason for apprehension among the public school’s authorities. Older students unfairly dominated younger ‘fags’ during the game, tripping, shoulder-charging, flooring and sitting on them. Dr. Thomas Arnold, headmaster at Rugby is credited with transforming the wild and brutal game in 1828. First of all, he brought the uncivilised ‘prefect-fagging’ system under control of the school masters by giving the older students official rights to power via appointments. Secondly, instead of trying to ban the game, he legalised it and urged the students to create a legitimate set of rules to control it. Due to the fact that the struggle for dominance among the students was calmed through granting of power, the actual 13: Football Violence in History: Social Issues Research Centre. violence on the playing field was formalised by regulation. The result was very positive. Football became a game for gentlemen as well as a religion-backed sport that was preferable to indulging in idle evils like imbibing alcohol. The ‘new look’ football that made the game cultured and respectable began to gradually spread among English society. It was in this ‘new look’ format that the game of football was exported to the rest of Europe.14 V) FOOTBALL IS INTRODUCED INTO EUROPE The game of football received a warm welcome in Europe. The French, Germans, Italians and Scandinavians eagerly and wholeheartedly accepted the game. To them, football was the showcase that displayed the sporting values of the British gentleman. Spectators of football matches in these countries were large in number and well-mannered. However Football Hooliganism surfaced in Sweden where unruliness among fans was fuelled by segregation that existed between the dignified upper classes and the noisy and rowdy working classes. Well aware that publicity is like oxygen to football hooligans,15 the Swedish Press did not help matters by encouraging the rivalry between the two classes. This rivalry spilled into football, leading to violent behaviour among hooligans among spectators when certain on-field events {such as atrocious referring decisions or scuffling between players} had inflammatory effect. Such unruly behaviour among hooligans, usually accompanied by prolonged drinking bouts, generated “organised expressions of feeling” which perturbed the Swedish authorities.16 14: Football Violence in History: Social Issues Research Centre. 15: FROSDICK, S. Football Hooliganism. Page 72 16: Football Violence in History: Social Issues Research Centre. VI) FOOTBALL HOOLIGANISM DURING THE 20TH CENTURY At the turn of the 20th century, despite the English middle-class’s achievement of making the game more refined and cultured, football continued to be the pastime of working class men who strongly associated themselves with their team players. As a result, almost all the new stadiums were constructed near the nucleus of working class society.17 The lenient outlook towards sporadic bursts of violence perpetrated by football hooligans was soon replaced by verbal reprimands as the number of spectators and incidents of Football Hooliganism began growing rapidly. In 1905, dozens of fans {including a 70-year old woman} were arrested and tried for hooliganism. In 1906, a football Cup match between Aston Villa and Tottenham had to be halted irrevocably after football hooligans stormed the playing field. The first serious Football Hooliganism riot of the 20th century took place in 1909 during a match between Glasgow and Celtic in Hampden, Glasgow. When the game ended in a draw, fans of both teams began clamoring for extra-play time. When the officials disregarded their demand, around 6,000 hooligans from the crowd led a riot that injured 54 policemen, badly damaged the playing field and emergency equipment, and knocked out almost every street light around Hampden. In 1924, a match in Brighton ended with hooligans storming on to the playing field, chasing the referee and beating a policeman into unconsciousness. In 1930, the Rangers stadium was temporarily shut as a punishment for excessive misconduct by hooligans against fans of Northampton Town. That same year, in a match between Queens Park Rangers and Clapton Orient, the police had to intervene to put an end to 17: Football Violence in History: Social Issues Research Centre. fighting between hooligans from both sides. In 1934, in the aftermath of a Leicester City v Birmingham game, a train was damaged by Leicester City hooligans returning home. In 1935, police had to resort to baton charge to control stone-throwing hooligans during a Linfield v Belfast Celtic match. In 1936, a Chelsea v Wolves match ended with Wolves hooligans assaulting Chelsea fans. During a match between Millwall and Exeter City in 1949, hooligans assaulted the referee and linesmen with blows and hurled projectiles. In 1954, during an Everton Reserves v Bolton Wanderers Reserves match, hundreds of hooligans stormed on to the playing field, lit fireworks and assaulted a linesman with kicks in the process. Many trains were badly damaged by Liverpool and Everton hooligans during 1955 and 1956.18 In the early 1970s, the antics of Chelsea and Manchester United ‘Red Army’ hooligans were always grabbing news headlines.19 Many incidents in the 1970s and 1980s involved hooligans articulating monkey noises to taunt black football players.20 In 1979, a match between West Ham and Millwall at Upton Park ended with hooligans from both sides engaging in a pitched battle.21 In the years leading up to 1980, Scottish fans were considered exemplary, hard-drinking, macho style hooligans whose pitched battles were among the bloodiest in Britain.22 In 1980, Rangers and Celtic hooligans fought a pitched battle after their teams played the National Cup final.23 93 Liverpool football fans were crushed to death against a pitch perimeter fence in Hillsborough stadium in Sheffield on 15 April 1989 during a Liverpool v Nottingham Forest F.A Cup semi-final match. The disaster occurred when stadium authorities let in 18: Football Violence in History: Social Issues Research Centre. 19: PENNANT, C. Congratulations, You Have Just Met the I.C.F. Page 21 20: FROSDICK, S. Football Hooliganism. Page 139 21: PENNANT, C. Congratulations, You Have Just Met the I.C.F. Page 106 22: FROSDICK, S. Football Hooliganism. Page 99 23: GIULIANOTTI, R. Football: A Sociology of the Global Game. Page 39 too many Liverpool fans for fear of incurring the wrath {“the pressure of fans outside the ground was a ‘danger to life’”} of Liverpool hooligans outside the stadium.24 In 20th century Europe, the ‘new look’ decent brand of English football rapidly eroded due to an increasing number of Football Hooliganism incidents. In Germany, different outfits of football hooligans arose such as ‘Munich Service Crew’ belonging to the Bayern Munich team, ‘Blue Army’ belonging to the Bielefeld, and ‘First Class’ belonging to the Duisburg Dusseldorf football club.25 In 1931, a match between Hertha Berlin and Fuerth in Germany ended with hooligans storming on to the playing field; a Fuerth player was serious injured in the melee. In 1933, a match in France between Nice and the visiting English Wolves team was abandoned due to uncontrollable Football Hooliganism. In 1946, the bus in which English Wolves team players were returning from Malmo {Sweden} was pelted with stones by dozens of hooligans from the Swedish team. In Yugoslavia, where Football Hooliganism took the name ‘Zusism’ {‘ZUS’ stands for ‘slaughter, kill, annihilate’}, the Yugoslavian newspaper ‘Borba’ contained a report in 1950 of 2 events close to Belgrade where football hooligans carried ‘hammers, mallets and metal bars,’ ostensibly to use in fight against rival team fans. Also in the 1950s, hooligans among fans of Kayseri and Sivas football teams in Turkey battled with guns, knives and broken bottles, causing 42 deaths and over 600 injuries. In 1955, 52 people sustained injuries in Italy during a Naples v Bologna football match.26 In October 1982, during a melee created by football hooligans, 340 fans were killed on a stairway after a Spartak {Moscow} v Haarlem {Holland} match.27 Perhaps the most high profile Football 24: 1989 – English Fans Crushed at Hillsborough: BBC News 25: FROSDICK, S. Football Hooliganism. Page 52 26: Football Violence in History: Social Issues Research Centre. 27: GIULIANOTTI, R. Football: A Sociology of the Global Game. Page 73 Hooliganism incident in Europe was the Heysel Stadium tragedy in Brussels {Belgium} on 29 May 1985 where 39 {mostly Italian} fans were killed and more than 400 persons were injured after a wall separating rival Liverpool {England} and Juventus {Italy} fans collapsed as a result of violent activities perpetrated by hooligans in the crowd. The incident led the English Football Association to ban English football clubs from playing in Europe. The ban was later lifted in 1990.28 In March 1997, hooligans belonging to the Dutch teams Feyenoord and Ajax clashed on a wasteland beside a motorway, in which 1 Ajax hooligan was beaten to death.29 VII) PREVENTION MEASURES AGAINST FOOTBALL HOOLIGANISM IN THE U.K. The U.K has taken several measures to combat Football Hooliganism. The measures originated from the government, police and the football clubs themselves. The government passed the Public Order Act in 1986 that authorised magistrates to bar football hooligans from entering stadiums.30 The Football Intelligence Unit {an affiliate of the National Criminal Intelligence Service [NCIS]} was set up in 1988. Its function is to collect and analyze intelligence relating to football matches involving English clubs playing in the country or abroad. It is supported by its central Football Desk and Football Intelligence Officers stationed all over the nation. It monitors fans’ movements and liaises with train operators to diffuse potentially dangerous situations involving rival fans traveling together including operating special trains to cope with extra traffic, and dry trains in which alcohol is neither allowed to be carried nor is it 28: 1985 – English Teams Banned After Heysel: BBC News. 29: GIULIANOTTI, R. Football: A Sociology of the Global Game. Page 52 30: Football Hooliganism: Politics.co.uk. allowed to be consumed.31 The Football Spectators Act in 1989 authorised magistrates to bar hooligans from traveling aboard to watch international matches.32 The Football Offences Act was passed in 1991 {applicable in England and Wales} which declares that the following acts {committed during, 2 hours before or 1 hour after a football match} are offences punishable by the law: hurling missiles, vulgar or racist chants and intruding on to the playing field.33 The government also passed the Football {Disorder} Act in 2000 which authorises magistrates to issue banning orders on individuals {on basis of strong evidence instead of after conviction} for domestic and overseas football matches as well as replacement and merging of international football banning orders. The guilty persons are required to surrender their passports.34 The U.K police use plainclothes undercover officers to tackle Football Hooliganism. It began the practice in the 1960s at the request of the English Football Association. The undercover officers socialise and integrate with hooligan groups, spy on them and gather evidence to nail them. Secondly, police officers use hand-held video cameras to make recordings of spectators with the aim of identifying hooligans. Thirdly, police officers are stationed at turnstiles to stop individuals entering stadiums illegally without tickets; they also check fans for weapons.35 In what has been touted as the most effective prevention measure, football stadiums have installed Closed-Circuit Television Cameras inside and outside stadiums to monitor spectators and detect hooligans. They also employ liaison officers {known as ‘Spotters’} 31: Football: British Transport Police. 32: Football Hooliganism: Politics.co.uk 33: Football Offences Act 1991: Akona. 34: The Football (Disorder) (Amendment) Bill: House of Commons. 35: Preventing Football Hooliganism: Football Network Organisation. whose task is to identify and monitor hooligans traveling to away games.36 VIII) PREVENTION MEASURES AGAINST FOOTBALL HOOLIGANISM IN EUROPE In the aftermath of the 1985 Heysel Stadium tragedy, 3 European bodies swung into action. The Council of Europe drew up the ‘European Convention on Spectator Violence and Misbehaviour at Sports Events and in Particular Football Matches’ aimed at making organisations and authorities cooperate to bring about safety and orderly behaviour at football games. The European Council instructed all EU nations to take appropriate measures to handle violence in and around football stadiums. The European Parliament drew up guidelines to fight against Football Hooliganism that included regular interaction between police intelligence officers, confiscation of racist propaganda and imparting training in crowd safety and control methods to club stewards. In addition to the above, the two main football governing bodies in Europe – FIFA and UEFA – maintain close links to exchange intelligence gathered and be updated on new methods to control Football Hooliganism.37 IX) FOOTBALL HOOLIGANISM APPREHENSION IN THE 21ST CENTURY Football Hooliganism continues during the 21st century. In the U.K, fans continue to be intimidated by infamous football grounds and their team hooligans such as Millwall’s ‘The Den’ (PP 287). The malady continues in Europe as well. During a match between Hapoel Tel Aviv {Israel} and Paris Saint Germain {France} in Paris on 24 November 2006, a plain-clothes French police officer trying to shield a fan from anti-Semitic abuse was the target of physical assault by a group of football hooligans. The attack forced him 36: Preventing Football Hooliganism: Football Network Organisation. 37: Ibid. to fire in self-defense and his shot unfortunately killed an innocent French football.38 On December 21, 2007 four Manchester United fans that had travelled to Rome before their team’s game against Roma in the Champions League were arrested and convicted of hooliganism perpetrated against Roma fans, and sentenced to two and a half years in jail.39 In the wake of all-seat stadiums commonly introduced in the U.K and Europe, football hooligans have now started taking their fight outside the stadiums. They utilise mobile phones and the internet to arrange meetings at certain locations before and after certain football matches to indulge in fighting.40 The next upcoming high-profile football event is the Euro 2008 Championships. Co-hosts Austria and Switzerland expect the volume of riots by Football Hooligans will not be diminished much despite the absence of English fans {England did not qualify for Euro 2008}. They identify Russia, Poland and Germany as the sources of most serious Football Hooliganism. The media expects a grim Poland v Germany match on June 8, calling it ‘the match of death’ due to the rival fans’ hatred of each other in the aftermath of massive rioting between hooligans from fans of both sides during the Euro 2006 Championship in Germany.41 X) CONCLUSION Although the instances of Football Hooliganism in the U.K and the rest of Europe have considerably reduced as a result of the prevention measures taken, the malady still erupts sporadically, albeit on a much lower scale and intensity. Soccer players, national and international football associations are putting in great efforts to entertain the public and 38: Football Violence in History: Social Issues Research Centre. 39: GRIFFIN, E. Manchester United Fans Jailed for Roma Incident - Is Fan Violence Getting Out of Hand: Soccerlens Football News. 40: Football Hooliganism: Politics.co.uk. 41: Football Hooligans to Turn Austria Inside Out for Euro 2008: PRAVDA. the least they can get in return, especially during home games, is total fan support for the teams. The players, spectators, fans and authorities are all greatly inconvenienced by the evil acts of a small number of uncouth hooligans. It is time this malady is ended once and for all. An ideal solution would be to emulate the Danes; in Denmark, a new system of non-violent, carnival-like football fan culture is being promoted by the ‘Roligans’ {a pun on ‘hooligans’} because the firm underpinning of the system is peace {‘rolig’ stands for ‘peaceful’}.42 42: FROSDICK, S. Football Hooliganism. Page 26 XI) REFERENCES ANON. 2008. 1985 – English Teams Banned After Heysel: BBC News. [Online]. 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