Aspects of High-Performance Pre-Competition Soccer Coaching, Based on PrInciples of Sports Science - Case Study Example

HIGH PERFORMANCE COACHING FOR COMPETITIVE SOCCER Introduction The main focus of high performance coaching of soccer players is to optimise their preparation for games, design the best training programmes, and adapt them to fit changing circumstances in the dynamic soccer environment. The coaching based on principles of sports science helps players achieve their highest potential. The most important considerations include regulation of the training intensity as required, the number of days between matches, implementation of post-game recovery with tapering strategies, planning cycles of training to fit into an overall annual periodisation, and avoidance of overuse and “burnout”. From a historical perspective, “the systematization of sports science support for football teams is a relatively recent development which all of the football codes have followed to varying degrees” (Reilly & Araujo 2005: 11). Thesis Statement: The purpose of this paper is to investigate various aspects of high performance pre-competition soccer coaching, based on principles of sports science. High Performance Coaching for Competitive Soccer Games Coaches elevate their team’s performance through training and instruction. In soccer, the demands placed on the players are grouped as four interdependent components of the game: technique, tactics, fitness and psychology. For raising a team’s high performance potential to its maximum level, and for preventing it from getting weighted down by a weak component, coaching has to focus on improving each of the components. Although performance perfection is never attained in sport, teams can reach their highest peak performance level when all the players are simultaneously playing at their own individual best in relation to each component (Daniel 2004). “One of the key principles of sports science is that learning is accelerated when practice activities succeed in replicating the demands of the game” (Daniel 2004: 1). This is termed as the principle of sports specificity. An example is that the ball is rarely stationary in open play, with intensive pace and flight of the ball and timing of the runs; therefore practising crosses using a stationary ball from only 20 yards out does not enhance the players’ skill in successfully executing crosses in a game where on a regulation size field the crosses will originate from further out. Similarly, receiving balls at the edge of the penalty area, and using a leisurely five or six touches to turn and prepare for a shot, does not help a forward to prepare for the demands of his position, because during a competitive match he will not be allowed as much time and space on the ball so close to goal. Elevating Physiological, Psychological, Technical and Tactical Levels The high levels of fitness required by soccer players to meet the physical demands of a game, calls for fitness training that is multifactorial, covering the different aspects of physical performance in soccer. The training components consist of aerobic and anaerobic training based on the energy pathway that dominates during the activity periods of the training session. Aerobic and anaerobic training represent exercise intensities below and above the maximum oxygen uptake, respectively. “Aerobic training causes changes in central factors such as the heart and blood volume, which result in a higher maximum oxygen uptake” (Bangsbo 2003: 47). Anaerobic training can be divided into speed training and speed endurance training. During a training game, the exercise intensity for a player keeps changing, hence some overlap occurs between the two categories of training. Fitness training also includes specific muscle training. Carbohydrate is critically required as a substrate for the muscle and central nervous system, to perform both intermittent high-intensity work and prolonged aerobic exercise. Hence, current sports nutrition guidelines advocate the ingestion of carbohydrate before, during and after exercise, for improving the levels of sports performance. There is an increasingly individualized approach to high carbohydrate diets, with fuel needs based on the athlete’s body size and exercise programme. The more recent concept of ‘train low, compete high’ emphasizes the need for training with low carbohydrate stores, but restoring fuel availability for competition. This is based on observations that “the intracellular signaling pathways underpinning adaptations to training are enhanced when exercise is undertaken with low glycogen stores” (Burke 2010: 48). Although low carbohydrate ingestion during training increases the muscle adaptive response and reduces reliance on carbohydrate utilization during exercise, there is no clear evidence that these methods enhance soccer performance. Moreover, there is a significant likelihood that “training low” may adversely impact the volume or intensity of training. Therefore, sports scientists face the challenge of designing studies with a multifactorial approach to nutrition support, integrated with ways to measure performance outcomes that will reflect the demands of competitive soccer games, and detect small improvements in performance levels (Burke 2010). “Elite soccer players spend a substantial amount of time trying to improve physical capacities, including aerobic endurance and strength, and the strength derivatives of speed and power” (Hoff 2005: 573). For international soccer teams, the average oxygen uptake ranges from 55 to 68 ml/ kg in 1 minute, and the half-squat maximum strength ranges from 120 to 180 kg. These values are similar to those in other team sports. Evidence from research indicates that the heart’s stroke volume is the element in the oxygen chain that limits aerobic endurance among athletes. As a result, there is an increase in intensive training interventions to secure high stroke volumes, which in turn have beneficially changed maximal oxygen consumption and soccer performance in relation to distance covered, contacts with the ball, and the number of sprints in a game. The training involved 4x4 minute intervals running uphill at 90 to 95 percent of maximal heart rate combined with 3 minutes jogging at 70 percent of maximal heart rate to enable the elimination of lactate. Soccer-specific training routine with the ball has been found to be as effective as plain running. In elite soccer players, strength training to produce neural adaptations has effectively changed not only strength in terms of ‘one-repetition maximum’, but also sprinting velocity, jumping height, running economy, and consequently aerobic endurance performance. “The training regimen used for a European Champions League team was 4x4 repetitions of half-squats with the emphasis on maximal mobilization of force in the concentric action” (Hoff 2005: 573). Cushion and Jones (2001) conducted a research study to examine and compare the working behaviors of eight top-level English professional youth coaches from both the Premier and Nationwide Leagues. Each coach was observed for a total of 135 minutes, using the Arizona State University Observation Instrument (A.S.U.O.I.). The evidence indicates that although across the leagues there were differences in particular behaviours, all coaches predominantly used instructional behaviours, along with praise, and the use of silence as a conscious coaching strategy. The use of questioning by the coaches depended on the emergence of circumstances in the dynamic games environment. Addressing the player by the first name differed according to the type of practice. The group practices employed by Nationwide League coaches frequently contained generic mistakes affecting all players, who were therefore coached as a group. “The team practices of the Premiership coaches involved specific mistakes, requiring the coach to address the individual, hence the greater use of first names” (Cushion & Jones 2001: 370). At the same time, in both the types of practices, direct interaction with the coach positively influenced the players’ practice intensity. Although in a particular training session one component may be emphasized upon, as many components as possible need to be incorporated into every activity. For example, an activity to improve technique can include a focus on fitness by adjusting the work-to-rest ratio or by increasing the tempo. Similarly, a small-sided practice game for enhancing technique by correcting technical mistakes, can be used by the coach to also teach a tactical concept. Coaches manipulate the activity to fit the training objective, and provide feedback to the players on the specific objective (Daniel 2004). Irrespective of the main objective of practice planning, at some point the emphasis has to shift to its ‘application to the game’ or tactical considerations. For example, a practice session devoted to the technique of ‘passing’ would involve several repetitions of passing drills. But the practice would be complete only with a final activity where passing solutions are applied to conditions simulating a match. Thus, it is vital to work on technique-on-demand or making decisions: the core of tactics. While designing a coaching session on tactics, the topic selection and related activities will depend on the “developmental needs of the players, the game analysis and the players’ abilities” (Daniel 2004: 123). All players need to brush up on technique regularly, because the success of a tactical activity depends on the players’ technical proficiency. Technical practice for at least half an hour should precede a tactical session. Periodization Theory and Game Theory Periodization can be defined as “planned distribution or variation in training methods and means on a cyclic or periodic basis” (Plisk & Stone 2003: 19). The fundamental goals are to use complementary training strategies at optimal times, manage fatigue, and prevent stagnation or overtraining. For this purpose, long term, intermediate, and short term planning are involved. Thus, periodized training programmes are structured into macro-, meso-, and microcycles that progress from extensive to intensive workloads, and from general to specific tasks. Decisions have to be made based on the athlete’s biological responses to training stimuli, the athlete’s developmental status, and the specific demands of the sport, in this case: soccer. Game theory is the science of strategic thinking, where convergence and not conflict of interest is the rule, where one player’s decisions or actions interact with another player’s. In terms of game theory, “periodization is the use of planned unpredictability to manipulate or outmaneuver another player” (Plisk & Stone 2003: 21). In the case of sports training, the other player is the body’s adaptive mechanism. The key in training is a cooperative strategy aimed to achieve positive results. Thus in game theory, cooperation underlies periodization. The key to periodized programme design is to skillfully integrate different training methods in order to yield better results than what is achievable through disproportionate or exclusive use of any one of them. Thus, the planning process should begin with classifying one’s training tactics into a rational system. Training tasks have to be distributed rationally through training strategy, for the entire period, of around 10 to 12 years. Depending on the individual’s development during adolescence, the most favourable periods have to be found for fueling the necessary structural, metabolic and functional changes. Training strategy also includes the “distribution of various tasks within a year by training periods, and within training periods by meso and microcycles of training” (Plisk & Stone 2003: 33). Performing the induction of necessary changes is a part of training tactics. Based on this, the most rational ways for organizing training microcycles and training sessions have to be found. Finally, the necessary training methods and exercises have to be selected. Periodization Models A periodized training programme is also known as a Macrocycle, a year’s worth of training cycles. The macrocycle is composed of mesocycles which are usually four-week training cycles with a specific training goal. The mesocycle consists of microcycles, which are generally week-long training cycles. The main goal of periodization is to scientifically plan a peak in performance. This is accomplished through systematically changing the intensity and volume. The three phases of periodization are fatigue, recovery (restitution) and improved performance (supercompensation). Primary periodization models are the linear, the non-linear and the conjugate models (Patel 2011). The linear model (Fig. 1) permits a single peak in performance, and starts with high volumes and lower loads and intensities. With the progression of time, the volume decreases and loads/ intensities increase to ascertain that soccer players are gaining enhanced strength and power for their sport. There are several flaws in this model, such as hypertrophy is emphasized only in the first mesocycle, and the lean mass gain diminish in the following phases of strength and poewr due to decline in volume. Similarly, strength and power increased through neuromuscular adaptations in later phases are reduced during the return to the hypertrophy phase (Patel 2011). Fig.1. Linear Periodization (Patel 2011) In Fig.2 below, volume loads are highest in week 3. At that time cumulative fatigue may adversely affect certain adaptations such as speed-strength. Therefore, there is a need for unloading week 4 to reduce overtraining potential and promote adaptation. The same fundamental pattern can be employed in each cycle to repeatedly introduce particular stimuli at progressively higher workloads (Plisk & Stone 2003: 28). Fig. 2. Mesocycles: 3 Weeks of Summated Microcycles at Progressively Higher Workloads and 1 Unloading Week (Plisk & Stone 2003: 28) “The main objective of a practice session depends on how it fits within the annual master plan” (Daniel 2004: 122), and whether the time is off-season, pre-season, or in-season, and how the practice session fits into the weekly cycle. The major training goals during off-season are likely to focus on improving technique and physical strength, while during the season tactical training will be prioritized. Research conducted by Holliday, Burton, Sun et al (2008) reveals that to achieve high performance coaching, an integrated approach to periodized training should combine physical training with mental skills training programmes incorporating mental training tool and skill periodization plans as well as mental training drill menus. While increasing the effectiveness of mental skills training, it is essential to minimize implementation problems. Further, stress occurs because of the various types of demands of the game, and the players should optimally reflect adaptive responses, since maladaptive behaviour will adversely affect sports performance. The coach has to keep the players motivated towards achieving high performance levels both during training as well during match playing (Eubank & Gilbourne 2003). A nonlinear pattern of training involves the manipulation of three factors: volume, intensity and skill, as well as the type of sport-specific exercises. At the beginning of a training cycle, volume “begins moderately high, increases, and then decreases” (Signorile 2007: 4). On the other hand, intensity starts at a low level, increases till almost the end of the cycle, and then decreases. The skill component increases throughout the cycle. Fig.3. depicts the changes in intensity, volume and technique. Fig.3. Changes in Intensity, Volume and Technique Across the Phases of a Periodization Cycle (Signorile 2007: 5) The non-linear model resolves the problems of the linear model, alternating between high and low volume phases. This is adaptable to various types of sports including team sports such as soccer which need to have multiple peaks throughout their competitive phase. Another non-linear model is the undulating periodization model which adjusts the sets, repetitions, speed of movement or tempo, and rest period of every workout. Thus, the athlete would receive a different stimulus each workout, making it more difficult for the individual’s body to adapt (Patel 2011). Fig. 4. below is a 3-week programme manipulating sets, repetitions and loads: Fig. 4. A Three-Week Programme   Day 1 Load (% 1 RM) Week 1 10x3 85 Week 2 3x12 65 Week 3 4x8 77.5       Day 2 Load (% 1 RM) Week 1 3x12 62.5 Week 2 4x8 75 Week 3 10x3 90     Day 3 Load (% 1 RM) Week 1 4x8 72.5 Week 2 10x3 87.5 Week 3 3x12 67.5 (Patel 2011) The conjugate method is another non-linear periodization technique, which emphases on improving all the qualities of performance simultaneously. Thus, within the same microcycle, speed, hypertrophy, strength and power can be applied, and is suitable for most team sports. The emphasis differs every day of the week, and the parts are integrated to make a stronger whole. The performance attributes have to be organized correctly. When designing training programmes, the coach has to take into consideration factors such as avoiding speed work at the end of the week when soccer players’ fatigue levelsw may be higher than at the beginning of the week. Similarly, before performing high quality strength and power work, high volume hypertrophy workout would not be included (Patel 2011). The Development of an Individual Player for a Specific Competition The coach’s knowledge of the competitive environment can support the development of an individual player preparing for a specific competition. Knowledge of the opposite team members’ strengths and weaknesses, their capability levels, and other factors should be studied through repeated viewing of past matches and games. Individual training is also an important aspect of coaching. It is essential for the coach to set long and short-term goals for individual players, based on their performance levels. The programme design should be realistic and achievable (Expertfootball.com 2011). The efficiency of the training routine and the individual’s starting level would determine the extent of training required for attaining one’s goals and becoming a top soccer player. Coaching in soccer drills, tactical resources, and team strategies need to be imparted to the player. Fitness training towards enhanced speed and agility, aerobic fitness, anaerobic endurance, and capacity to meet the physical demands of the game are necessary. Individual footballers need to work on their skills and techniques by practising by themselves. These relate to ball control, kicking, heading, tackling, goalkeeping, dribbling and other components of the game. Similarly, decision making skills have to be honed to perfection on various issues that may arise during the unfolding of the play, individual positioning and other factors (Expertfootball.com 2011). The coach should also instruct players on how to avoid getting injured and not suffer burnout due to overtraining, to facilitate sustained coaching (Paul & Robinson 2009). Conclusion This paper on high performance pre-competition soccer coaching based on principles of sports science has highlighted various aspects of training. Achieving peak performance by elevating the level of physiological, psychological, technical and tactical preparedness was examined. A systematic approach to periodization was identified as vital for guiding physical training, as well as to enhance mental training programs for optimizing the outcomes. A detailed coaching plan included the individual microcycles and their specific objectives, the mesocycles and the macrocycles. Further, how the coach’s knowledge of the competitive environment supports the development of an individual player preparing for a specific competition was demonstrated. The evidence indicates that the coach’s knowledge of the game, his vision, capability, innovativeness and determination in the training of the team and the individual members are crucial for achieving high performance levels in competitive soccer games and matches. Future research should focus on further developing periodization methods for greater optimization of competitive game outcomes, and on improved dietary periodization strategies, particularly those emulating competitive soccer practices. References Bangsbo, J. (2003). Physiology of training. In Reilly, T. & Williams, M. (Eds). Science and soccer. London: Routledge. Burke, L.M. (2010). Fueling strategies to optimize performance: training high or training low? Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 20 (Supplement 2): pp.48-58. Cushion, C.J. & Jones, R.L. (2001). A systematic observation of professional top-level youth soccer coaches. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 24 (4): pp.354-376. Daniel, J. (2004). The complete guide to coaching soccer systems and tactics. London: Reedswain Inc. Eubank, M. & Gilbourne, D. (2003). Stress, performance and motivation theory. In Reilly, T. & Williams, M. (Eds). Science and soccer. London: Routledge. Expertfootball.com. (2011). Soccer training. Expert Football. Retrieved on 17th August, 2011 from: http://expertfootball.com/training/ Hoff, J. (2005). Training and testing physical capacities for elite soccer players. Journal of Sports Science, 23 (6): pp.573-582. Holliday, B., Burton, D., Sun, G., Hammermeister, J., Naylor, S. & Freigang, D. (2008). Building the better mental training mousetrap: Is periodization a more systematic approach to promoting performanc excellence? Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 20 (2): pp.199-219. Patel, B. (2011). Periodization Part 1. Elite Soccer Conditioning. Retrieved on 17th August, 2011 from: http://www.elitesoccerconditioning.com/ProgramDesign/Periodization.htm Paul, R. & Robinson, P. (2009). Foundations of sports coaching. Oxford: Taylor & Francis. Plisk, S.S. & Stone, M.H. (2003). Periodization strategies. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 25 (6): pp.19-37. Reilly, T., Cabri, J. & Araujo, D. (2005). Science and football V: The proceeding of the Fifth World Congress on Science and Football. Great Britain: Routledge. Signorile, J.F. (2007). Periodize training for the masters athlete.SIRC, 5 (5): pp.1-13. Read More