How Racism and Discrimination Impact on Health Access - Essay Example

From a sociological perspective discuss how racism and discrimination impact on health access Racism The 1960s saw the emergence of civil rights groups in America that advocated equal opportunities that transcend the skin color line. It is the time that people heard Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I have a Dream” speech that reaffirmed the need for civil rights legislation and nonviolent protesting. It should be remembered that his “Letter from Birmingham Jail” was famous for promoting the doctrine of civil disobedience, a method of protests that urged blacks to ignore all laws that they believe are unjust. It is a period that witnessed the rising aggression and assertiveness of organizations that campaigned for America to be true to its ideals of democracy and equality – the Southern Christian Leadership Conference organized in 1957 by Dr. King coordinated protests and preached the need for civil right activists; the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) created in 1909 to raise the quality of living for inner city blacks, became a powerful legal force and argued cases in the Supreme Court which led to the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and Voting Rights Act of 1965; the Urban League, rejecting the courtroom strategy utilized by the NAACP, advocated militant tactics and sought direct confrontation and violence with local governments; the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) created in 1942 organized freedom rides through the south to expose the violations of the 1960 Supreme Court decision outlawing segregation on interstate buses and trains, and registered blacks to vote throughout the south. It is a time of landmark changes in the law that indicated the advancement of these movements’ objectives – the 24th Amendment of 1964 gave voting rights to every American citizen regardless of their race or religion; the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed segregation in public areas and granted the federal government power to fight black disfranchisement, and created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to prevent discrimination in the workplace; the Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibited the use of literacy tests as a part of the voter registration process which were initially used as a method to control immigration to the United States during the 1920s, and enabled federal examiners to register anyone who qualified in the South, giving the power of the vote to underrepresented minorities; the Civil Rights Act of 1968, which was a part of a series of legislation that encouraged desegregation of blacks in America, barred discrimination in housing sales or rentals, and as such was considered a key piece of legislation which ensured blacks more equal rights (Unit Ten). Racism around the Globe Almost half a century after America claims to have deinstitutionalized racism, one asks if racism, in all its forms and manifestations, really gone. One may argue that its absence in the American constitution does not guarantee its non-existence in the lives of every American, whatever the skin color. If criminal justice had been the arena where racism had been most widely used against African-Americans half a century ago, what is the situation in the healthcare arena? Manning Marable, a professor of history and political science, and the director of the Institute for Research in African-American Studies at Columbia University, in his article Racism, Prisons, and the Future of Black America, points out that if the number of black men and women in American prisons is any indication, racism in America is not totally obliterated. As of the year 2000, there are over two million Americans incarcerated in federal and state prisons and local jails throughout the United States, more than half of which – or one million — are black men and women. That means that one of out every 35 individuals within black America is behind prison bars (Marable). And USA is not a rare case. Around the world, racism is still a rampant problem. Canada The first event of racism in Canada occurred during the first trip of Jacques Cartier in 1534, when he brought back two Iroquois more or less against their will to France, which greatly amused the French royal court. Eventually, much racism occurred between the French and the First Nations people, between First Nations tribes themselves (fuelled by alliances of certain tribes with the French, and others with the English), between the English and the First Nations, and between the English and the French. But the relationships between all those ethnicities has changed a lot since the beginning of European settlement in Canada (Stoler, 1997). Aside from what happened, as stated above, there are records of slavery in Canada in the 1700s. More than half of all Canadian slaves were aboriginal (Stoler, 1997). History would also depict the various immigration laws in Canada that hinder other nationalities to legally settle in Canada, hence they were treated unfairly by the Canadian citizens. More recently, Canada has been perceived as practicing systemic, institutionalized racism by allowing employers to require Canadian-based job experience in a potential employee. This puts landed immigrants at a clear disadvantage, and often result in highly educated people working for much lower pay than their Canadian educated counterparts, or even struggling with a minimum wage job (Stoler, 1997). France The French have a long history of ethnic and racial conflicts. Anti-Semitism, a common trend in European history is also highlighted in French history by events such as the Dreyfus affaire, and France's irresponsible treatment of its Jewish population during Nazi occupation. Also, the treatment of North Africans and other former colonials during the colonial era, the atrocities committed by France during the Algerian War of independence (1954-1962) are also signs of intolerance (Stoler, 1997). Germany The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 (in Natzi Germany) used a pseudoscientific basis for racial discrimination against Jews. People with four German grandparents were of "German blood", while people were classified as Jews if they descended from three or more Jewish grandparents. One or more Jewish grandparents made someone "mixed blood." The Nazis used the religious observance of a person's grandparents to determine their race (Stoler, 1997). Ireland From the course of this country’s history, there has been very little immigration by non-whites to due to historic poverty, though in recent times growing prosperity in the country has attracted increasing numbers of immigrants, mainly from Africa, China, and Eastern Europe. Also the absence of any colonization of other country has meant that foreign people are not drawn to Ireland by "mother country" factors that have effected other European countries. Descendents of Irish people who emigrated in the past have also started moving to the country. Most immigrants have settled in Dublin and the other cities. Though these developments have been accepted or tolerated by most, there has been a rise in so-called racist attitudes among some sections of society. Many Irish people are very proud of being in the European Union, but increasingly large numbers resent migrants from outside the Union coming to Ireland expressly for the purpose of claiming asylum, without having applied for asylum in other countries along their route as is required by international law. There are several "anti-racism" groups active in the Republic, as well as those seeking tighter immigration laws such as the Immigration Control Platform (Stoler, 1997). New Zealand A 2003 study by the Human Rights Commission showed 70% of New Zealanders think that Asians face significant discrimination. After World War II, immigration policy remained largely Eurocentric until the mid-1980s, although war refugees and non-Anglo-Celtic migrants were allowed in the country in limited numbers. Land issues came to a head in the late 1970s with Maori protesters occupying the Raglan Golf Course and Bastion Point, with land claims on both being settled by the following decade. When 1986 came, country-of-origin rules were abolished, leading to major inflows of immigration for the first time in years. However, anti-immigration rhetoric from Winston Peters has since forced immigration rules to be tightened (Stoler, 1997). United Kingdom There were race riots across the United Kingdom in 1919: South Shields, Glasgow, London's East End, Liverpool, Cardiff, Barry, and Newport. There were further riots by immigrant and minority populations in East London during the 1930s, Notting Hill in the 1950s, and Brixton, Toxteth and Blackbird Leys, Oxford in the 1980s and more recently, in Bradford and Oldham. These riots have followed cases of perceived racism - either the public displays of racist sentiment, or, as in the Brixton and Toxteth riots, racial profiling and alleged harassment by the police force (Stoler, 1997). Racism in one form or another was widespread in Britain before the twentieth century, and during the 1900s particularly towards Jewish groups and immigrants from Eastern Europe. The English establishment even considered the Irish a separate and degenerate race until well into the 19th Century. There have been growing concerns in recent years about institutional racism in public and private bodies, and the tacit support this gives to crimes resulting from racism, such as the murder of Stephen Lawrence, Gavin Hopely and Ross Parker (Stoler, 1997). Commentators believe that a huge amount of racism has been undocumented within the UK, adducing the many British cities whose populations have a clear racial divide. While these commentators believe that race relations have improved immensely over the last thirty years, they still believe that racial segregation remains an important but largely unaddressed problem within United Kingdom. Australia In Australia, racial discrimination takes place even up to the level of the country’s healthcare system. In fact, most of the recognized health journals and articles have been condemning the Australian healthcare system for its being “institutionally racist” and the fact that racism rooted from Australia being, or at least having become, an “uncaring society” (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2003). What is more appalling about the seemingly unending racial discrimination in Australian healthcare system is the fact that even to its own people, treatment is unjust. For instance, there are reports that most hospitals in Australia would give different treatment regimens with the Aboriginal people. “Aboriginal people in Western Australia born in the 1940s received low-cost nursing care; in contrast, a white cohort of the same age received higher-cost technological care” (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2003) Also, there have been some complaints from the marginal groups of people in Australia that they are receiving inequitable and unfair Medicare and Pharmaceutical benefits. “In Katjungka (a remote Aboriginal community), $80 per head per year; in Double Bay (an affluent Sydney suburb), $900 per head per year” (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2003) Indeed, institutional racism can be felt and seen throughout the most part of Australia, more particularly to its healthcare system. This has been the constant struggle of the many people who come and live in this country. And this has been the unending issue within its political system along with its endeavor to change this old but timeless habit. Racism Impact on Healthcare The greatest victims of these racial processes of unequal justice, of course, are African-American and Latino young people and the many other minor or marginalized groups. Keenga-Yamahtta Taylor, in an article in the International Socialist Review, points out how statistics, which are the clearest barometers for determining and measuring the quality of life in American society, show that African Americans continue to lag behind whites in every possible category. The author argues that not only does this point to the depth of racial inequality in this society, but it clearly undermines the idea that racism is simply a matter of prejudice, existing only on an ideological level (Taylor). A study recently conducted by Cornell University found that "nine out of 10 Black Americans, or 91 percent, who reach the age of 75 spend at least one of their adult years in poverty," compared to 52 percent of whites. The study goes on to say, "that by age 28, the Black population will have reached the cumulative level of lifetime poverty that the white population arrives at by age 75" (Taylor). As a result, access to healthcare is very limited for these people being subjected to racial discrimination. In fact, health care is a major problem for African Americans. Twenty-three percent of African Americans have no health coverage at all. Poverty and a lack of health insurance mean that Blacks die on average six years younger than the rest of the population. It means that Black infant mortality rates are more than twice that for white babies. The same deadly mix has helped to produce an AIDS epidemic among African Americans. Today, Black women–only slightly more than 6 percent of the population–make up 68 percent of all new AIDS cases for women, and 63 percent of all new pediatric AIDS cases are of Black children (Taylor). Conclusion Indeed, it is like a domino effect. Racial discrimination still takes place. People of different skin color are treated unfairly by the society. Even in the healthcare sector, which is supposed to take care and ensure good health for everyone, and this means one and all, racism is still rampant. That ultimate effect of this is mortality, rising cases of ailments among indigenous and minority groups of people and of course, lack of trust to the health care sector. This picture of racial injustice –within the society and the health care sector - around the globe points to the systemic nature of racism. The degree of racial disparity and inequality are not just the result of ignorance or a lack of tolerance. The greatest proof of this is not just the conditions that exist today, but the deterioration of conditions for those being discriminated in the aftermath of the social justice struggles of the 1960s, which points to the institutionalization of racism. Healthcare cost is continuously rising, and this is a big problem already. Because of this not everybody is willing use whatever healthcare facility is available. This goes the same for the majority of people who have been a subject of discrimination. African-Americans, Asians, Latinos and the like fear that if the society or the justice system is treating them unfairly, they will have the same experience in any healthcare facility they would go into. They think that their illnesses will not be treated well just because they are from a different race. More so, they do lack the ability to pay healthcare institutions because of their lack of financial resources. References: American History Notes Unit Ten: 1960-1990, Civil Rights to 1965. The Salem Witch Trials. Retrieved from Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2003). The health and welfare of Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Canberra: AIHW. Barkan, Elazar (1992). “The retreat of scientific racism: changing concepts of race in Britain and the United States between the world wars”. New York: Cambridge University Press. Blacks, men most likely to experience unemployment. (November 2001). MLR: The editor’s Desk. Retrieved from Bruce, Dain. (2002). “A hideous monster of the mind: American race theory in the early republic”. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Byars, Walt. (2002). Discrimination and the Black Unemployment Rate. 4Ranters.com. Retrieved from Cal Deal. How Dylan’s Song “Hurricane” Murders the Truth. Hurricane Carter: The Other Side of the Story. August 14, 2004. Retrieved from Marable, Manning. Racism, Prisons, and the Future of Black America. PeaceWork. December 2000-January 2001. American Friends Service Committee. Retrieved from Rubin Carter. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from Stoler, Ann Laura. (1997). "Racial histories and their regimes of truth," Political Power and Social Theory, 11:183-206. Taylor, Keeanga-Yamahtta. Civil rights and civil wrongs: Racism in America Today. International Socialist Review, Issue 32: November-December 2003. Retrieved from Wu, Frank H. 2005. “Asian Americans Don’t Know What to Do About Racial Discrimination”. IMDiversity.com Retrieved from Read More