Civil Society, NGOs, and the State - Essay Example

Civil Societies, NGOs, and the State By student’s name Course code+ name Professor’s name University name City, state Date of submission Introduction A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a voluntary association of individuals or groups that are legally constituted and meant to pursue activities that promote the interests of the public (Senbeta 2003, 12). Such activities include protecting the environment, promoting the interests of the poor, undertaking community development and providing basic social services. NGOs will, in many cases, provide services that the governments are unable or unwilling to provide to their people. NGOs are considered as part of civil society whose goal is to provide aid. Civil society is regarded as the third sector which offers an alternative to the greed of the market and the inefficiencies of the government (Corry 2010, 11). Civil society is an independent and non-profit sector which provides channels through which citizens act collectively to promote public interests. It acts as a domain that is parallel but separate from the state. The constituting elements of civil societies are the citizens, their interests and their activities (Senbeta 2003, 13). The networks and socializing forums created by civil society can prevent social problems and also restore better social conditions. The fact that civil societies perform the roles of independent and self-organizing associations of citizens and the society creates the link to NGOs. NGOs also provide avenues, just like civil societies, where citizens can participate in efforts of promoting the public interest. The people are in charge in civil societies and so is the same for NGOs. As a result, NGOs are part of civil societies. Although NGOs have ties with governments and businesses, they are in fact independent and autonomous (Agarwal 2008, 933). They act where the governments are unable or unwilling to act. However, governments also fund NGOs despite their independence. The purpose of this essay is to discuss the potential and limitations of NGOs as civil society actors. To achieve this goal, I will use World Wildlife Fund as a case study by looking at its activities in the countries it operates in while looking at the potential and the challenges it faces. The essay will look at the relationship between World Wildlife Fund (WWF) on one hand and governments and corporations on the other. I will then present the observations from the case study as the discussion on the potential and limitations of NGOs as civil society actors. Theoretical Background The market failure and government failure theory are critical in defining the role or the basis for civil society and NGOs. According to the market failure theory, there are certain conditions where the production and distribution of a product through a market that is competitive will result in the socially inefficient allocation of the product where all the parties involved in the process are pursuing individual interests (Winston 2006, 5). According to the theory, Adam Smith’s concept of the ‘invisible hand’ will fail proving that competitive markets with agents who have self-interests can fail in providing efficiency (Le Grand 1991, 423). The result of such failure is socially unjust conditions. The public choice school of thought has, therefore, emerged with the argument that it is this failure of the market that justifies government action in the economies and the market. The two parts of this theory state, on one part, that the market processes are capable of allocating scarce resources to the society or the people. This leads to the assumption of the existence of perfect competition where information on prices direct the self-interested market agents to correct mistakes present in resource use (Winston 2006, 8). The second part of the theory, however, states that competition is imperfect and, therefore, the market failures should be corrected by the government. This second part proceeds on the assumption that the government has the incentives and accurate information to ensure that Pareto optimal allocation of resources is achieved (Keech et al. 2012, 2). Market failure may be as a result of factors such as the intensity of exogenous shocks which cause certain adjustments in the market, the level of uncertainty and risk in future economic plans and the degree of market imperfections. Market imperfections may arise where there are monopolists in the market who have no incentive for competition (Benacek 2000, 9). The public choice school of thought has, on the other hand, raised the possibility of government failure capable of thwarting the efforts of the achievement of the Pareto optimal outcomes. Although the government is expected to correct market failures, there is also the possibility that the government will fail in correcting these failures. Weimer and Vining (2005, 206) classifies government failure into passive and active failure. Passive government failure is where the government fails to act to correct market failures while active failure is where government action to correct these failures results in worse outcomes than if it did not act. According to Charles Wolf, government institutions may fail in a similar fashion as that of the market due to factors such as the disjunction between costs and revenues, derived externalities and internalities and organizational goals (Le Grand 1991, 428). The market and government failures lead to the need for a third force to address the inefficiencies brought by these failures. This is the basis for civil society actors. Government failures, as discussed above, may be passive or active. Civil society actors, including NGOs, come in to address the inefficiencies that result from the government’s failure to act or to address the negative consequences resulting from the government’s actions (Le Grand 1991, 428). This has led to the third sector theory which tries to explain the rise of the civil society as an alternative to the market and the state. Civil society as a third sector is neither ruled by the logic of the market nor governed by a bureaucratic chain of command (Corry 2010, 13). The third sector theory establishes five characteristics that define civil society actors such as NGOs. These characteristics are that they are organized, private, non-profit, self-governing and that they are voluntary. The element of organization means that they have an institutional structure while being private separates them from the government. The fact that they are not for profit means that any profit gained is used to further the objectives of the organization. The self-governing characteristic means that these institutions or organizations are well equipped to control their activities. This further reinforces the independence and autonomy of the civil society actors. The fact that they are voluntary means that participation in their activities or the management of their affairs is voluntary (Corry 2010, 14). This element of voluntary participation reinforces the position of the civil society. According to the London School of Economics, civil society is defined by the uncoerced and collective action by individuals based on shared interests (Corry 2010, 14). Some theorists look at civil society as the private sector. According to Francis Fukuyama, civil society is made up of intermediate institutions that include voluntary associations, charities, churches, educational institutions, media, businesses and unions which rely or depend upon the habits, ethics, and customs of people (Winston 2006, 11). Civil society as the private sector theorists view the whole private sector, including businesses, as civil society operating outside of the government. The civil society is seen as an antidote to governments. However, the challenge with this perspective is the fact that civil society does not only cure the failures and inefficiencies of the government but also of businesses which the theorists consider to be part of the civil society. Potential and Limitations of NGOs Civil society such as NGOs is considered as the third sector existing independent of the government and the market forces (Corry 2010, 15). NGOs, therefore, are meant to cure the inefficiencies of the market and the government. The market is made up of the activities of businesses and corporations. As a result, to understand the potential and limitations of NGOs, we must first understand the relationship between NGOs on one hand and governments and corporations or businesses on the other hand. To achieve this objective, I will focus on the relationship between World Wildlife Fund for Nature and the governments and businesses/enterprises situate in countries where the organization operates. World Wildlife Fund for Nature Word Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an NGO which was established in 1961 whose objective is to conserve the environment and species through reducing humanity’s footprint on the environment (World Wildlife Fund for Nature 2016, 6). Initially, the organization was meant to raise funds to finance environmental projects that other NGOs were working on. However, due to the increase in resources, WWF began to carry out its own conservation projects (Muratova 2012, 2). WWF is regarded as the largest organization in the world dealing with conservation efforts and has over five million supporters. The organization operates in over 100 countries and receives its funding from individuals, governments, and corporations. The organization’s new strategy organizes its activities around six areas which include marine, wildlife, forests, freshwater, food and climate. The linking of these six areas ensures that vulnerable places, species as well as communities are protected. The fact that sustainable development has featured prominently on the international agenda has led to the inclusion of food and climate to WWF’s strategy (Muratova 2012, 3). This is to ensure that any activities undertaken to ensure that food is available for the ever increasing population do not end up destroying certain species or interfering with bio-diversity. The strategy ensures that economic concerns do not override the environmental concerns. The organization’s strategy has put people at the centre of its objectives. This means that each person across the globe is instrumental in the conservation of the environment and in ensuring the protection of biodiversity (Muratova 2012, 3). The activities of the organization include educating people and communities in areas rich in biodiversity to empower them to take part in the protection of endangered species. These efforts also ensure that people at the community level also participate in the conservation efforts. The success of the strategy revolving around six key areas requires the input of all stakeholders at all levels. This means that the organization has to work with governments, corporations, and communities to influence them into making sustainable choices. The relationship between WWF and the governments and corporations present in the countries where it operates is important in understanding the potential and limitations of WWF and NGOs as a whole (Gemmill and Abimbola 2015, 4). It is worth noting that WWF and other NGOs as well have their objectives pegged on the activities of governments and corporations or businesses. Today, the government actions and inaction, as well as the activities and operations of corporations, form the basis for the formation of NGOs. The actions of governments and corporations, especially multinational companies have led to social injustices and inequalities hence creating the need for the establishment of NGOs (Defaye 2014, 5). Corporations such as Coca-Cola, for example, are involved in large scale pollution and destruction of the environment leading to the establishment of NGOs such as WWF which tries to create measures to address the negative effects on the environment as a result of the activities of such corporations. The failure by government to enact policies and laws to promote the education of communities on environmental protection and the conservation of species has also led to the creation of NGOs such as WWF to educate communities to take part in conservation efforts. Today, NGOs are working closely with governments and corporations to further their objectives. WWF has, for example, partnered with the US government to deter trade in illegal timber which has contributed to the destruction and degradation of forests. WWF has made efforts to work with the US Congress to ensure that policies are enacted to stop or prevent the importation of illegal timber into the US. The organization is also working closely with companies involved in the production and distribution of seafood to ensure that illegally caught fish do not reach the US seafood market (WWF-US 2014, 25). In Canada, WWF has partnered with HP company to reduce the environmental impact of its activities. WWF-Canada, for example, uses HP products with energy stars which mean that such products prevent greenhouse gas emissions by meeting energy efficiency guidelines. However, there are also cases of resistance by corporations in some states in implementing environmental conservation measures (World Wildlife Fund 2015, 2). In China, a large group of companies operating in the country is described as hostile towards discussions on the implementation of conservation measures (World Wildlife Fund 2012, 5). In this country, WWF has reported that there is a need for closer monitoring of the companies to promote environmental reporting and transparency (World Wildlife Fund 2008, 5). There are also cases where governments are not willing to enact laws and policies necessary for the protection of the environment. In such cases, it becomes difficult for WWF to put in place the necessary measures to promote conservation. A challenge, however, arises as to the possibility of a conflict of interest where the amount of funding by corporations has increased over time. Multi-national companies such as Coca-Cola recognized for their environmental destruction activities are private partners with WWF and yet their contributions are in millions of dollars per year. Other companies that have partnerships with WWF include Nike, HP, and Sony (Muratova 2012, 5). Some governments are also key financiers of WWF activities. Such donations to the organization cast doubt as to the ability of the organization to monitor and rebuke the activities of its key partners even where they have breached environmental protection laws. Further, the WWF’s board consists of players such as conservationists, business leaders, and government officials. This further creates a possibility of external influence in the decision-making of the organization (World Wildlife Fund 2013, 10). However, these concerns can be considered as tackled by the company’s conflict of interest policy which protects the organization from outside influence. Summary of Potential and Limitations for NGOs NGOs have the potential to grow and to contribute more towards promotion of social justice and equality. Such potential can be exploited through strengthening their partnerships with other non-state actors, communities, governments and corporations (Chitra 2003, 9). WWF, for example, has made an effort to involve communities and individuals in their conservation efforts especially in the local areas where there is rich bio-diversity. Such involvement includes educating them on measures meant to protect the environment. In the same way, NGOs can work with individuals and communities in areas where they operate to ensure that their objectives are met. NGOs can also achieve their objectives by working closely with other non-state actors and other NGOs (Vadaon 2013, 12). This is more so for those NGOs or non-state actors whose objectives overlap or are similar with those of the NGO in question. This increases the number of personnel and also helps in combining of resources to ensure that objectives are met. It is also important for NGOs to work closely with governments. Such cooperation will ensure that laws and policies are enacted that create a legal framework for the carrying out of the NGO’s activities. Working closely with the government and multi-national companies also means that NGOs are able to prevent social injustices and inequalities that result from the activities of governments and corporations (McNevin 2008, 6). WWF, for example, has been able to ensure that companies implement conservation measures in their operations to prevent pollution rather than waiting for pollution to happen so that it can address the problem. Such cooperation, therefore, will enable NGOs to prevent the social injustices and inequalities before they happen. It is also worth noting that most of the limitations affecting NGOs arise from the relationships discussed above. Close partnerships with governments and corporations lead to a conflict of interests which impede efforts to attain the objectives of the NGOs. NGOs have to ensure that funding by corporations and governments does not water down their efforts to attain their objectives (Gardner et al. 2012, 20). To prevent such eventualities, NGOs should have strict conflict of interest policies. The lack of funding is also a limitation for NGOs. As NGOs set up offices in countries across the globe, the resources become outstretched hence their activities are hampered. Such lack of enough funding also translates to the lack of enough personnel. The unwillingness to act by governments also acts as a limitation for NGOs. Cooperation from the government such as in passing laws and policies to assist in promoting the objectives of the NGO is crucial for NGOs. The unwillingness of governments to assist impedes the achievement of the objectives of the NGOs (Hess 2009, 319). Conclusion NGOs as civil society actors are important in addressing problems affecting individuals and communities. NGOs have been instrumental in addressing global problems such pollution and global warming. WWF, for example, has played a big role in mobilizing states and corporations to conserve the environment in their activities. There is great potential for NGOs through strengthening their cooperation with other non-state actors, individuals, communities, governments and corporations. Such cooperation will promote the activities of NGOs in pursuit of achieving their objectives. Limitations such as lack of enough funding, lack of enough personnel, conflict of interest arising from cooperation with corporations and governments and the unwillingness of governments and corporations to support NGOs are some of the issues that have hampered the achievement of their objectives. References Agarwal, A 2008, Role of NGOs in the protection of the environment, Journal of Environmental Research and Development, 2(4), 933-938. Benacek, V 2000, Market failure versus government failure-The options of the emerging market economies, Centre for Economic Research and Graduate Education. Chitra, A 2003, Role of NGOs in protecting environment and health, York University. Corry, O 2010, Defining and theorizing the third sector, University of Cambridge. Defaye, F 2014, Non-governmental organizations: Potentials and limitations, University of Bergen. 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