Current Security Issues - Literature review Example

Current Security issues Name: Institution Literature Review Introduction A survey of literature shows that the concept of security is interpreted differently using different perspective, hence has varied definitions based on the context it is applied. Within the academic setting and policymaking, an underlying assumption is that security has a basic implication, where some researchers have arrived at a general consensus that the concept should clearly depict the context within which it is used to show threat to certain values (Nasu, 2011; Littlewood & Strigini, n.d; Wolfer 1952). Further review of security literature shows different current issues based on the values, such as global crime, global food security and global energy security. As shown by current literature, the concept has found significance relevance to policymakers and security professionals in coming up with mitigation and preventive strategies against threats (Sunderland et al., 2013; Baumann, 2008; Idriss et al., 2010). Global Food Security Food security exists when all individuals at a specific time at all times have access safe, sufficient and nutritious food that enables them to maintain healthy and active lives (Food and Agriculture Organisation, 2005). This perspective is consistent with Gustafson’s (2013) who discussed that the concept of food security should be viewed as including both economic and physical access to food that is able to meet the dietary needs of individuals in addition to their eating preferences. FAO (2005) further indicated that food security should be based on three key pillars, namely food availability, where food is available in adequate quantity consistently, food access, where there are sufficient resources to obtain the right kind of food for nutritious purposes and lastly food use, which means that food should be suitable based on the awareness of basic care and nutrition. Sunderland et al. (2013) and FAO (2005) share a similar view that food security is a complex issue of sustainable development that is not only associated with health through malnutrition, but other issues such as sustainable environment and economic development. In exploring the history of the concept of food security to conceptualise its meaning, FAO (2005) showed that food security is a much flexible complex depicted by the variable definitions in by policymakers and researchers. FAO (2005) explored over 200 definitions expressed in public writings to determine the implied and explicit meanings and came up with the conclusion that the definitions pointed at depicting food security to imply availability at all time of sufficient food supplies that can sustain steady and consistent food consumption expansion. While on one side of the spectrum it means that availability of sufficient supplies at national and international levels, on the other side it is concerned with sufficient nutrition and human health. Comparing these definitions underscore the significant reconstruction of the underlying meanings on the policy and research analyses. The definitions are to this end analogous with the concept of security, as proposed by Wolfer (1952) and Baldwin (1997), who stated that security is achieved by preventing threats of any nature, whether health threats. Importance of the Global Food Security Issues Global food security concept ensures protection against vulnerabilities to food security. Sunderland (2013) argues that the capability to ensure sufficient food security depends on the capability to identify the vulnerable nations or households. Baldwin (1997) defines vulnerability as the range of factors that position individuals at risk of experiencing food insecurity. The level of an individual or a community’s vulnerability is established through examining their exposure to the risk factors as well as their capability to coping with or withstanding the demanding situations. Sunderland (2013) showed that once the risk factors for food security are identified, it becomes easier to identify the mitigation strategies against food security. Understanding the issues enable national governments to come up with coping strategies. According to Gustafson (2013), identifying the vulnerable communities or individuals is also a critical step towards assisting the individuals to cope with or withstand the stressful situations. In Sunderland’s (2013) view, identifying the vulnerable groups or individuals can be ensured through an appropriate proxy, for instance how poor a certain household is measured against an established poverty line or criterion. In a study of India’s food security, Gustafson (2013) remarked that government policies such as those that affect the vulnerable groups have debilitating effect on food security, which could however be resolved by having a change in policies. Food security has an underlying role in ensuring trade reforms. According to FAO (2003), the correlation between food security and trade reforms offers a foundation for global trade negotiations in many developing countries. The global dimension is significant since the trade policies substantially affect the global food availability through production and importation. The impact on food imports can be arbitrated through implication of the trade policy on a country’s earnings from foreign-exchange. On a different perspective, Johnson (2009) indicates that policies affect food security because of the link to expenditures and incomes. This is since any change made in the trade regime will directly affect the urban and rural incomes as well as access to employment. The government revenues will in turn be affected by the change in the degree of revenues earned from customs duty. Using a similar perspective, FAO (2003) noted that the government revenues and national food availability may affect the level of household access to nutritious and sufficient food depending on the level of household incomes. Food security issues are also critical for making reforms in the agricultural sector. This is of significance to food security professionals and policymakers. FAO (2003) indicated that since food security largely depends on the agricultural sector of an economy, knowing the extent of food risks or climate changes often provide data for making reforms for food security. In regards to trade globalisation, poor economies are often not well positioned to benefit from trade liberalisation despite having significantly impacted the income levels. Johnson (2009) pointed out that this is because of their inflexible structures of food production and trade within the agricultural sector. According to FAO (2003), such situations are often manifested by limited market access and the underdeveloped institutions in addition to poor reforms and strategies that can perpetuate favourable conditions. Johnson (2009) suggests that despite these, knowledge of food security status of a nation in comparison to data from other food secure nations enables the vulnerable nations to replicate and integrate ideas in policies that promote food security. The issues of food security enable security professionals to come up with strategies that can ensure food sufficiency. Food security portrays food sufficiency. Using this concept, Johnson (2009) suggests that food self-sufficiency or supply of food from national resources beyond that implied by free trade is a strategy that can be developed to ensure food security. The significance of food security implies developing a set of strategies for food reliance that are reflected on the policies, where the sources of food depend on international trade patterns as well as the importance and risks related to it. FAO (2003) argued that when food security strategies are developed, self-sufficiency is achieved satisfactorily even in developing nations where agriculture still remains a key GDP contributor. Global Energy Security The concept of energy security is more than competiveness and sustainability. Baumann (2008) noted that this is since having a secure supply is much more significant. According to Baumann (2008), energy security is a multidimensional concept that includes internal as well as external actions. To this end, Baumann (2008) described energy security as having sufficient energy in reliable supplies against threats of depletion and at reasonable prices. Singh (2012) concluded that the concept of energy security is built on the more underlying factor of security, where there is no steady interruption as well as situations where the excessive energy flow cannot harm a countries political stability or economic output. Baumann’s (2012) underlying implication is that energy security constitutes having sufficient energy supplies in amounts that sustain economic growth and political unity. In defining the concept of global energy security, Singh (2012) put the aspects of international networks of infrastructure and political stability into perspective. According to Watson (2010), this is since such aspects have increase the risks and threats of significant supply disruptions, which result from technical system failures, political instability sabotage and turmoil in the financial market. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), energy security refers to sufficient supply of energy at a cost that is reasonable, in a way that avoids disruptions or distortions (IEA, 2014). Singh (2012) however negated the definition as incomplete and less focused, since it disregards several important concepts that depict the threats and vulnerabilities associated with energy security. The researcher claimed that energy security definition should include the price components and the physical unavailability components, even as their relative significance is dependent on the market structures (Singh, 2012). Winzer (2014) also described the definition as being too market-centric. The researcher argued that the underlying logic of such market-centric definition is because of the globalization and liberalisation of energy markets making energy security to be the market outcome, and which can be defined in terms of price and supply. Winzer (2014) suggested that energy security is focused on ensuring that strategies are developed to make markets functional. Another perspective of the concept of energy security is promoted by the European Commission’s Green Paper (European Commission, 2000), which suggests that energy security comprises respecting the environmental concerns and focusing on ensuring sustainable development. European Commission (2000) clarified that the security of supply does not focus on maximising energy-sufficiency or reducing dependence, rather it is focused on mitigating the risks related to dependence. This definition is consistent with that of United Nations Development Programme. Winzer (2014) and Singh (2012) suggested five elemental issues that exemplify energy security. The first issue is concerned with management or risks of demand and supply by ensuring they are not interrupted or disrupted through technical, political or any other failure. The second issue is concerned with ensuring that energy reflects the local resources and dependence on imports. Third, the issues of strategic intent that show that energy security are specific policies that can be adopted by the government. Fourth, reflect the issues that portray that energy security have temporal dimensions, such as threats and risks to the physical supply that are variable because of short-term risks such as terrorism and long-term risks such as the sufficiency of supply to march demands and efficiency to be delivered to the market. Fifth, the concept of energy security is applied keeping into perspective the substantial differences in market and infrastructure. Importance of the Global Energy Security Issues As observed by Singh (2012), the concept of global energy security ensures that the government and energy security professionals or experts integrate the conceptual frameworks or dimensions in developing rational policies within the energy domain. This perspective is supported by Verma (2007) who stated that within the concept of energy security needs of developing countries such as India, the concepts should be understood by the state in policy making and implementation to ensure that the implementation of the policy revolves around the fiscal, governance, political and administrative bottlenecks. Qinhua (2007) suggests that the issue help energy security professionals in ensuring sustainable development. This view is consistent with Verma’s (2007), who in identifying the importance of energy security issues to India, suggested that they can help the country to have resilient energy systems which can be sustained at levels that meet secure supply and economic and political integrity. Singh (2012) shares a similar perspective when he argued that the issues of energy security enable countries to sustain security margins that serve as buffers against disruptions by ensuring that strategic reserves, sufficient storage and backup supplies are kept. A significance of understanding the issues of energy security can help prevent price shocks related to energy. According to Labandeira and Manzano (2012), a negative yet avoidable implication of energy security is associated with price shocks. In reality, knowledge on this issue points to the fact that oil price shocks have negative implications on the economy. Hamilton (2003) shares this perspective and suggests that knowledge of the issue can be applied by policymakers and energy security professionals to control import of oil as well as regard it as an input in production function. Preventing the price shocks can accelerate economic growth through its impacts on consumer expenditure. This is since oil price fluctuations cause uncertainty on the future, which cause consumers to react by suspending their expenditure and increasing protective savings (Hamilton, 2005; Abraham, 2004). Global Crime Crime is a universal phenomenon that multidimensional in nature and capable of destabilising the human coexistence as well as sustainable development efforts (Ayanda & Alapata, 2011). Ayanda and Alapata (2011) note that security was basically predicted within military rationalisation so that the capability of a nation to combat crime was measured in terms of its combat readiness, sophisticated weaponry and the number of military personnel. Hence, security has been viewed to be mainly concerned with preserving sovereignty and independent of a nation. With the rise in globalization, global crime has increased in number, virulence, aspiration and range. Global issues have had an effect on the international relations since 1970 (Findlay, 2013). Karofi and Mwanza (2006) discussed that crime is not like globalization which can be theorised except for the causes. The researchers cited (Findlay, 2000) to explain that the concepts of crime have depended largely on the jurisdictional and cultural contexts. A review of early literature indicates that the traditional definitions of crime portray its dual dimension, which lead to the conclusion that crime variably refers to actions where the law is violated, a commanded duty omitted or an act that is forbidden by the law is committed (Bartol, 1980). Muncie (2005) noted that in defining crime, it is essential to keep in mind that the areas that are greatly affected with criminality are places in which there has been significant increase in cross-border streams of people, commodities and money. Muncie (2005) defined crime as an action of conduct denoting commission of offense. On the other hand, a security threat is believed to be an activity intended to degrade the property, values or safety of a society. Ayanda and Alapata (2011) pointed out that crime denotes a huge threat to public safety, causing personal suffering, property damage and places hue burden on the social network. The researcher indicated that globally, 60 percent of city residents have either been affected or involved in crime. According to Pakes (2013), understanding the issues of global crime has various favourable implications to the states in ensuring peaceful coexistence. Importance of the Global Crime Issues As stated by Idriss et al. (2010), understanding the issues of global crime security leads to public policy development to prevent and minimise crime as well as improve the quality of community life. This is consistent with Ayanda and Alapata’s (2011) argument that knowledge on the issue of global crime help in the development of crime prevention approaches, policies and practices as reflected internationally through resolutions made by the United Nations. Castle (1997) noted that the emphasis is not merely on crime prevention but how risks associated with crime can be mitigated and how social cohesion can be reinforced to collectively reduce the threats. Castle’s (1997) perspective that understanding the issues of global crime enables national governments to come up with crime evaluation techniques and strategies is consistent with recommendations made by Idriss et al. (2010). According to Pakes (2013), some progresses in crime prevention and management are evident globally through which national governments engage in evaluating and examining the shifts in crimes globally. Idriss et al. (2010) noted that among the evaluation techniques include the victimisation techniques that are today used commonly to reconstruct crime and to provide measures to security. Idriss et al. (2010) gave examples of France as among the countries that have benefited from knowledge on issues, hence enabling them to come up with a tool called CITER for assessing the progresses in social cohesion and satisfaction with the mediation process. According to Pakes (2013) and Idriss et al. (2010), the relevance of issues of global crime are also significant in the sense that they can be used by security professional to development conceptual frameworks that ensure shared culture or prevention is reinforced through development of international agencies such as UNODC, which has promoted the generation of tools designed to facilitate international crime management standards. Idriss et al. (2010) further noted that understanding the issues have also helped security professionals at UN-HABITAT to come up with safety audit guides that can guarantee the safety of women in their work environments. Idriss et al. (2010) and Aguilar-Millan et al. (2008) shared a perspective that understanding the issues of global crime enables security professionals to develop professional know-how on international crime prevention mechanism. It also enables security professionals to come up with training tools that can ensure the capabilities to manage the threats related to crime are emphasised and multiplied. To this end, Idriss et al. (2010) identified a number of guides, manual and kits developed by security professionals to support national governments in crime prevention. According to the researchers, among the significance of these tools, manuals and kits are in safety training, community and peer training and capacity building in management of crime. Security professional also benefit from developing the knowledge to evaluate the implication of preventing cross-border range of economic and social factors on human coexistence (Idriss et al., 2010). Idriss et al. (2010) illustrated that understanding the issues has enabled security professional to develop courses globally at universities, specifically in Europe and Latin America, in addition to a number of doctoral courses to train professionals in crime management. Some supranational training programs are also being developed and offered, such as Beccaria that emphasise the need for having cross-border exchange programs on security. Ezeony (2008) noted that a sense of trust between the institutions and populations can also be restored since knowledge on the issues and preventive mechanisms contribute directly to preventive and safety actions. Conclusion Survey of literature shows that although security is defined differently based on the global context or intended objective, its underlying meaning seeks to depict the threats to individual and national government values. Indeed, this conclusion is inferred from global food security, which seeks to show the threats to human health and to define protective mechanisms to ensure sufficient and nutritious food. The same is noted in global energy security, which seeks to show the threats to sufficient energy in amounts that ensure economic and political stability. Global crime also seeks to show the threats to human life associated with violation of laws. To security professionals and policymakers, these current issues enable them to come up with mitigation and preventive strategies against contextual threats. Reference List Abraham, S. (2004). Challenges to Energy Security. Electronic Journal of the US DOD, 9(2), 4-10 Aguilar-Millan, S., Foltz, J., Jackson, J. & Oberg, A. (2008). The Globalization of Crime. Bethesda, MD: World Future Society Ayanda, A. & Alapata, Y. (2011). An Investigation of Security and Crime Management in Developing Society: The Implications for Nigeria Democratic Set-Up. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences 1(3), 390-398 Bartol, C.R. (1980). Biological, Psychological, and Sociological Theories of Crime and Deviance. New York: Oxford University Press Baumann, F. (2008). Energy Security as multidimensional concept. Research Group on European Affairs. Retrieved from Center for Applied Policy Research: Baldwin, D. (1997). The concept of security. Review of International Studies (1997), 23, 5–26 Castle, A. (1997). Transnational Organized Crime and International Security. Institute of International Relations The University of British Columbia. Working Paper No. 19 European Commission (EC), 2000, Green paper: towards a European strategy for the security of energy supply, Commission of the European Communities, COM/2000/0769 Final, Brussels, 2000 Ezeony, I. (2008). Crimes of Globalization: Health Care, HIV and the Poverty of Neoliberalism in Sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Social Inquiry 1(2), 113-134 FAO (2003). Trade Reforms and Food Security: Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation FAO. (2005). Food security: concepts and measurement. Retrieved from FAO Corporate Document Repository. Findlay, M. (2000). The Globalisation of Crime. London: Cambridge University Press Findlay, M. (2013). Governing through Globalised Crime. New York: Routledge Gustafson, D. (2013). Rising food costs & global food security: Key issues & relevance for India. Indian Journal of Medical Research 138(3), 398-410 Hamilton, J. (2003). What is an oil shock? Journal of Econometrics, 113, 363-398. Hamilton, J. (2005). Oil and the macroeconomy. London: MacMillan. Idriss, M., Jendly, M., Karn, J. & Mulone, M. (2010). International Report Crime Prevention And Community Safety: Trends And Perspectives. Montreal: International Centre for the Prevention of Crime (ICPC) IEA. (2014) Energy Security. Retrieved from International Energy Agency website: Johnson, R. (2009). Food Security: The Role of Agricultural Trade. International Food & Security Trade Policy Council. Retrieved from AGitrade.org. Karofi, U. & Mwanza, J. (2006). Globalisation and Crime. Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology. 3(1), 1-20 Labandeira, X & Manzano, B. (2012). Some Energy Aspects of Energy Security. Rede (University of Vigo) and Economics for Energy, WP 09/2012 Littlewood, B. & Strigini, L. (n.d.). Redundancy and Diversity in Security. London: Centre for Software Reliability, City University Muncie, John (2005). The globalization of crime control – the case of youth and juvenile justice: Neoliberalism, policy convergence and international conventions. Theoretical Criminology, 9(1), pp. 35–64. Nasu, H. (2011). The Expanded Conception of Security And International Law: Challenges To The Un Collective Security System, International Security, 3(3), 16-33 Pakes, F. (2013). Globalisation and the Challenge to Criminology. New York: Routledge Qinhua, X. (2007). Global Energy Security: China’s Energy Diplomacy and its Implications for Global Energy Security. Dialogue on Globalisation, Briefing Paper FEs Beijing Singh, S. (2012). Energy Security: Concepts and Concerns in India. International Politics Energy. Retrieved from. Sunderland, T., Powell, B., Ickowitz, A., Foli, S., Pinedo-Vasquez, M., Nasi, R. & Padoch, C. (2013). Food security and nutrition: The role of forests. Discussion Paper. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia. Verma, S. (2007). Energy geopolitics and Iran-Pakistan-India gas pipeline. Energy Policy 35, 3280-3301 Watson, D. (2010). Does the Pursuit of Energy Security Drive Resource Wars in Africa? The Niger Delta in the Energy Security Nexus. Retrieved from University of Leeds Websites. Winzer, C. (2014). Conceptualizing Energy Security. Conceptualizing Energy Security. EPRG Working Paper 1123 Cambridge, Working Paper in Economics 1151 Wolfer, A. (1952). "National Security" as an Ambiguous Symbol. Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 67(4), 481-502. Read More

While on one side of the spectrum it means that availability of sufficient supplies at national and international levels, on the other side it is concerned with sufficient nutrition and human health. Comparing these definitions underscore the significant reconstruction of the underlying meanings on the policy and research analyses. The definitions are to this end analogous with the concept of security, as proposed by Wolfer (1952) and Baldwin (1997), who stated that security is achieved by preventing threats of any nature, whether health threats.

Importance of the Global Food Security Issues Global food security concept ensures protection against vulnerabilities to food security. Sunderland (2013) argues that the capability to ensure sufficient food security depends on the capability to identify the vulnerable nations or households. Baldwin (1997) defines vulnerability as the range of factors that position individuals at risk of experiencing food insecurity. The level of an individual or a community’s vulnerability is established through examining their exposure to the risk factors as well as their capability to coping with or withstanding the demanding situations.

Sunderland (2013) showed that once the risk factors for food security are identified, it becomes easier to identify the mitigation strategies against food security. Understanding the issues enable national governments to come up with coping strategies. According to Gustafson (2013), identifying the vulnerable communities or individuals is also a critical step towards assisting the individuals to cope with or withstand the stressful situations. In Sunderland’s (2013) view, identifying the vulnerable groups or individuals can be ensured through an appropriate proxy, for instance how poor a certain household is measured against an established poverty line or criterion.

In a study of India’s food security, Gustafson (2013) remarked that government policies such as those that affect the vulnerable groups have debilitating effect on food security, which could however be resolved by having a change in policies. Food security has an underlying role in ensuring trade reforms. According to FAO (2003), the correlation between food security and trade reforms offers a foundation for global trade negotiations in many developing countries. The global dimension is significant since the trade policies substantially affect the global food availability through production and importation.

The impact on food imports can be arbitrated through implication of the trade policy on a country’s earnings from foreign-exchange. On a different perspective, Johnson (2009) indicates that policies affect food security because of the link to expenditures and incomes. This is since any change made in the trade regime will directly affect the urban and rural incomes as well as access to employment. The government revenues will in turn be affected by the change in the degree of revenues earned from customs duty.

Using a similar perspective, FAO (2003) noted that the government revenues and national food availability may affect the level of household access to nutritious and sufficient food depending on the level of household incomes. Food security issues are also critical for making reforms in the agricultural sector. This is of significance to food security professionals and policymakers. FAO (2003) indicated that since food security largely depends on the agricultural sector of an economy, knowing the extent of food risks or climate changes often provide data for making reforms for food security.

In regards to trade globalisation, poor economies are often not well positioned to benefit from trade liberalisation despite having significantly impacted the income levels. Johnson (2009) pointed out that this is because of their inflexible structures of food production and trade within the agricultural sector. According to FAO (2003), such situations are often manifested by limited market access and the underdeveloped institutions in addition to poor reforms and strategies that can perpetuate favourable conditions.

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