Race Relations in Classroom - Literature review Example

Race Relations in Classroom Introduction Following European settlement, Australia was predominantly Anglo-Saxon with most migrants exclusively originating from the British Isles (Mosler & Catley, 1998, pp. 43-45). Although, the Aboriginal and Torres Islanders people were Australia’s original inhabitants, European settlers domineered and imposed their culture on these indigenous communities (Jupp, 2001, pp. 9-12). Over the time, Australia has progressively become a multiracial and multicultural society (Fong, Chiang & Denton, 2013, p. 58). This transformation can be traced back to the mid 1990’s which was marked by a steady rise of civil rights movements and immigration reforms. As Australia’s population continues to become more diversified, laws and policies have been instituted in a bid to discourage racial discrimination and other forms of marginalisation (Jupp, 2001, pp. 9-21). To date, Australia is ranked amongst the least racist countries in the world (Gye, 2013). However, the 2005 Cronulla riots portrayed a different picture by showing that racial intolerance, prejudice and hatred may still have root in Australia. In December 2005, a large crowd consisting of “White” Australian youths gathered at the Cronulla Beach in Sydney seeking revenge after several Lebanese youths physically attacked two Australian lifesavers. In order to showcase their national solidarity a majority of the White Australian youths carried the Australian flag whereas some wore T-shirts and carried banners with derogatory messages about the Lebanese. The crowd predominantly consisting of youths mainly of Anglo-Australian identity also chanted hateful messages asserting that Australia is their country, the Lebanese are just refugees thus they should go back to the country. As a result, violence ensued between white Australian youths and Lebanese youths. Unsuspecting by-standers of who looked like they were from Middle East were also unceremoniously attacked by white Australian youths (Carrington, 2009, 132-133). Although several youths who instigated the riots were charged and important public figures, notable social institutions and the government vehemently condemned the racial intolerance, hatred and violence that marked the Cronulla riots, this incident suggests that racism could still be an existing problem in Australia (Lowe, 2012). Given the fact that there are laws against racial discrimination and Australia is ranked amongst the least racist countries in the world, it is still a paradox why there are still numerous racialised events. In another incident, a Korean student and her aunt were verbally abused on a Sydney bus. The abuser ranted that “Koreans are disgusting.” Several incidences of racial abuse taking place in public transport have also been reported (Waleed, 2013). Carrington (2009: 132) observes that a wide range of factors may fuel racial intolerance, some of these factors include; media radicalisation, ethnic vilification and political populism. The media particularly plays an important role in shaping public understanding and opinion regarding different races (Carrington, 2009: 132). Perhaps the notion of “Whiteness” and “Globalization” are valuable concepts that can help in understanding the reaction of some Australians to present day ‘racialised’ events in Australia. In reference to Australian history, the subsequent sections of this essay will critically examine these concepts and explain how they relate to ‘racialised’ events in Australia.  In addition, this essay will explore race relations within the Australian school systems particularly with regards to the curriculum and classroom practices. The notion of “Whiteness” The term “Whiteness” is commonly used to refer to ethnicity or race (Bonnett, 1999, p. 202). Ethnicity is equivalent to race nonetheless it is not restricted to race. Bonnett (1999, p. 202) notes that, originally this term had no cultural or social-cultural connotations, it was simply used to describe skin colour. However, in the nineteenth century the term “White” emerged as a ethnic or racial term that was categorically used to refer to people of European heritage (Bonnett (1999, p. 202; Leets, Giles & Clement, 1996, p. 116). European imperial expansion through colonialism in the eighteenth century inculcated the notion that they were a superior race able to concur the world. Hence the theory of “whiteness” holds that being white comes with certain privileges and powers since white people have monopoly and are the dominant group in the world (Ganley, 2003, pp. 12-13). In Australia, the concept of whiteness came into being following European settlement. White European first encountered the Aboriginal and Torres Islanders people. The white settlers perceived people from these indigenous communities as irrational animals and inferior species with low intellectual capacity (Reynolds 1998, pp. 22-26). Consequently, they domineered and imposed their “superior” culture on these indigenous communities (Jupp, 2001, pp. 9-12). The loss of Aboriginal the right to own land and “The Stolen Generation” provide good examples of how whiteness is manifested , reproduced and the extent that the concept of whiteness may contribute to racialisation events in Australia. In this case, it is apparent that, just by the virtue of being “white” European settlers perceived their culture as more superior and bestowed upon themselves the entitlement of obtaining the ancestral land of the indigenous people (Reynolds 1998, pp. 22-26; Marten, 2002, p. 226). The 2005 Cronulla riots and the racial abuse incidences in public transport mentioned earlier in this essay also provide a glimpse on how the theory of whiteness is manifested and reproduced in today’s society. Although Australia has progressively become a multiracial and multicultural society, based on these incidences it seems as if White Australians or people of the Anglo-Australian identity, have to assert their dominance and position as the more superior, deserving and entitled citizen of Australia by constantly jabbing at non- white minority groups. Australia’s school system is also not an exception. It is an established fact that as compared to indigenous students, non-indigenous students of the Anglo-Australian identity realise better learning outcomes than indigenous students. At all levels of learning, indigenous students demonstrate lower level of school attendance, retention and academic achievement than non-indigenous students of the Anglo-Australian identity. Consequently, post-school qualification, economic participation and employment rates of indigenous Australians are lower than those of White Australians. This in turn affects the overall socio-economical status, health and well-being of the indigenous community (SCRGSP 2007, pp. 4-15). According to Calma (2008, p.7), poor learning outcomes amongst indigenous students can be attributed to historical exclusions of indigenous communities from the Australian system of education through government policy and the delivery of services that do not meet the needs of indigenous students. It is believed that when it comes to learning, indigenous students are disadvantaged mainly because classroom practices and the curriculum used are not inclusive in nature. For instance, the curriculum used in mainstream schools predominantly reflects white supremacist ideology, based on the notion that white culture and practices is superior to all others (Hickling-Hudson & Ahlquist, 2003, p. 64). Hickling-Hudson & Ahlquist (2003,p.65-68) notes that, to some extent the curriculum in mainstream schools appears to be Eurocentric and biased towards the white supremacist worldview. It is apparent that, the content incorporated in school curriculum is not sufficiently grounded in the culture and daily life experiences of indigenous students rather it is founded in the cultural knowledge and experiences of white students. For example, indigenous understanding of days of the week, seasons and holidays differs from that white Australians. Furthermore, the stories or tales they were told while young are different from those of told to white Australians. Nevertheless, in most school settings textbooks, learning exercises and wall pictures used indicate that curriculum content is founded on white knowledge and experiences. Moreover, the literatures used are mainly derived from mainstream white culture. For instance in primary schools and pictures and stories of Disney versions of Cinderella, Snow White and the Red Riding Hood among others are commonly used. This in turn makes it difficult for indigenous students and even other students from ethnic minority groups to relate to what is being taught in school (Hickling-Hudson & Ahlquist, 2003,p.65-68). Research also shows that in regional and remote areas, indigenous students and other students from ethnic minority groups struggle to understand and engage in learning activities because curriculum components are not sufficiently relevant and practical to their experiences. Learning activities in the classroom are often not sufficiently contextualised in relations to students’ knowledge base and daily experiences. Moreover, they are not aligned with the goals and aspirations of students from minority ethnic groups. As a result, a considerable number of students are unable to develop a clear framework for understanding and connecting what is being taught in school and their real life experiences and situations (Calma, 2008, p.45). Additionally, the language used for instruction in mainstream schools manifests the theory of whiteness in Australia’s education system. Although many learners from minority ethnic groups mainly use their mother-tongue, in all learning levels Australian English is used as the primary language of instruction. The difference between the language that students from minority ethnic groups speak at home and the language used in school for instruction further increases the challenges that indigenous students and students from other minority ethnic groups encounter while learning. Not only does the use of English as the main language of instruction makes it difficult for these students to understand what is being taught, it also makes it difficult for teachers to effectively communicate with these students and their parents and provide the much needed assistance (Calma, 2008, p.42). What most curricula in mainstream schools lack is an intensive language and comprehension elements that are based on bilingual and ESL teaching practices which accommodate the linguistic backgrounds and capabilities of indigenous students and students from other minority ethnic groups(Calma, 2008, p.44). However, it is worth noting that with time, most states and territories in Australia have made efforts to bridge the gap between the learning outcomes realised by White students and students from minority ethnic groups. For instance, policies which encourage the inclusion of Indigenous language, history and culture have been instituted. Nonetheless, the implementation of such policies is still deficient. Relatively low focus and effort directed towards teacher training on ESL and the history and culture of minority ethnic groups has in recent years abridged the ability of schools to meet the needs of students from indigenous communities and other ethnic minority groups. Hence more needs to be done (NTDE 1999, pp. 125-131). Globalisation Globalisation can be described as a continuous process on international integration that is facilitated through the exchange or sharing of ideas, world views, information, products and many other aspects of culture. It can also be described as the integration economic, cultural and political activities of people from different nations or geographical areas (Wells, Shuey & Kiely, 2001, p. 38). Often times, globalisation is characterised by advancement in communication technologies , improved transport networks and migration. Much debate and controversy has been generated from the concept of globalisation particularly when it comes to discussing its benefits and detrimental impact. From one view point globalisation is perceived as beneficial in the sense that it has enhanced international interactions, trade and cooperation. On the other hand, some critics argue that globalisation has diminished and corrupted distinctive national identity and values (Wells et al , pp. 41-54). As earlier observed in this essay, the concept of globalisation can be of value when it comes to understanding racialisation events in Australia such as the 2005 Cronulla riots and the several incidences of racial abuse that have taken place in public transport in Australia. First it is important to understand that Australia has progressively become a multiracial and multicultural society due to the influx of migrants from different parts of the world. For instance, Australia accepts around 13,000 people annually through the humanitarian visa programme where people enter the country and stay as refugees (Department of Immigration and Citizenship Fact Sheet 60). Besides this, thousands of students from different countries come to Australia each year to pursue higher education. There also those who migrate to Australia for employment of business purposes (Jupp, 2001, p. 9-21). As a result, one is likely to assume that due to the diverse nature of Australia’s population there is mutual influence and exchange of ideas, world views, information, products and many other aspects of culture. However, a critical look at the 2005 Cronulla riots and the several incidences of racial abuse that have taken place in public transport in Australia, it is apparent that the dominant culture has more influence. For instance, during the Cronulla riots a large crowd predominantly consisting of youths mainly of Anglo-Australian identity asserted their dominancy through verbal abuse and violence over the minority group consisting Lebanese youths and unsuspecting by-standers of who looked like they were from Middle East (Carrington, 2009, 132-133). Lebanese were referred to as mere refugees who have no rights to claim anything while in Australia. Similarly, in the incidences of racial abuse that have taken place with Australia’s public transport, individuals from minority ethnic groups for instance the Korean student are perceived and labeled as inferior. In this case, it is plausible to equate globalisation to cultural imperialism. Cultural imperialism basically reinforces unequal relationship between civilizations by favoring the most dominant civilization (Lechner, 2012, 206-213). Communication technologies play a significant role in facilitating globalisation. Through the use of communication technologies such as television, radio and the internet, the media has particularly played an important role in shaping public understanding and opinion regarding different races (Carrington, 2009: 129-135). Generally, the media has helped to reinforce the dominance and superiority of white people over other minority ethnic groups. For instance, in famous global films such as “Superman”, “Batman” and the “Avengers” the protagonist or hero is always a white man with super powers. Conversely, in films such as “X men”, “Transformers” , “Unforgiven” and “Alien” black characters are always the first to die. Given that films are global product, they inculcate the belief that white people are superior to other races. Furthermore, in video games the black guy or an Arab or Muslim is positioned as the villain or bad character that one is challenged to kill or destroy. Such depictions help to spread and reinforce racial stereotypes such as “most criminal are black” ; “Arabs and Muslim are terrorists” (Wilson, Gutierrez & Chao, 2003, 88-109). Conclusion Basically, this essay has examined the notion of “Whiteness” and “Globalisation” and how they help in understanding the reaction of some Australians to present day ‘racialised’ events in Australia. The findings of this essay show that, to a certain extent the concept of whiteness reflects the ways in which being white comes with certain privileges and powers since white people have monopoly and are the dominant group in the Australian society. Although Australia has progressively become a multiracial and multicultural society, it seems as if White Australians or people of the Anglo-Australian identity, have asserted their dominance and position as the more superior and deserving race by imposing their culture and way of life on non- white minority groups. This is evident in classroom practices and curriculum content used in mainstream schools which predominantly reflect white supremacist worldviews. Similarly, the concept of globalisation has facilitated cultural imperialism by reinforcing unequal relationship between civilizations by favoring the most dominant civilization. The media has particularly played an important role in shaping public understanding and opinion regarding different races. Through films and television programs the media has helped to reinforce the dominance and superiority of white people over other minority ethnic groups. Issues surrounding the concept of whiteness and globalisation that have been discussed in this essay have significantly shaped my worldview regarding race relations especially within the school context. It has become apparent that racism and cultural imperialism is deeply rooted in our education systems. It has also caused me to re-examine my beliefs and views about my ethnic background other cultural groups. Based on the evidence portrayed in this essay, it seems that the media has played an important role in shaping my understanding and opinion regarding different races. Nevertheless, I have learnt that although other cultures or ethnic groups may appear to be dominant, none is superior or better than the other. References Bonnett, A. (1999). 'Constructions of Whiteness', in Race, Identity, and Citizenship: A Reader. eds. R.D. Rodolfo, L.F. Miron & J.X. Inda, Massachusetts : Blackwell, pp. 200–218. Calma, T. (2008). Achieving improved primary and secondary education outcomes for indigenous students. Sydney: AMP foundation, pp. Carrington, K. (2009). Offending Youth: Sex, Crime and Justice. Sydney : Federation Press, pp. 132-133. Ganley, T. (2003). What’s all this talk about whiteness? Dialogue1:2, pp. 12-30. Retrieved from Gye, H. (2013). Map shows world’s ‘most racist’ countries. Retrieved September 30 2013 from Fong, E. Chiang, L. N & Denton, N. (2013). Immigrant Adaptation in Multi-Ethnic Societies: Canada, Taiwan and the United Stated. New York: Routledge, p. 58 Hickling-Hudson, A. & Ahlquist, R. (2003). “Contesting the curriculum in the schooling of indigenous children in Australia and the USA: from Eurocentrism to culturally powerful pedagogies”. Comparative Education Review 47(1), pp.64-89. Jupp, J. (2001). The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, Its People and Their Origins. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 9-21. Lechner, F I. (2012). The Globalization Reader,4th ed. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 206–213 Leets, L., Giles, H & Clement, R. (1996). 'Explicating Ethnicity in Theory and Communication Research'. Multilingua, 15(2), pp. 115–147. Lowe, I. (2012). Bigger or Better: Australia’s Population Debate. Sydney: University of Queensland Press. Marten, J. A (2002). Children and War. New York: NYU Press, p. 229. Mosler, D. & Catley, R. (1998). America and Americans in Australia. New York: Greenwood Publishing Group, pp. 43-45. Northern Territory Department of Education (NTDE) (1999).Learning Lessons Report: An Independent Review of Indigenous Education in the northern Territory. Darwin: NTDE,pp. 125-131. Reynolds H. (1998). ‘Missionaries and Protectors’, in H. Reynold (eds). This Whispering in Our Hearts. Crow Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin, pp. 22-46. Steering Committee for the Review of Government Service Provision (SCRGSP) (2007). Overcoming Indigenous Disadvantage: Key Indicators 2007 Overview. Canberra: Productivity Commission SCRGSP, 2007, pp. 4-15. Waleed, A. (2013). State of Denial: Racist Abuse in Australia. Retrieved September 30 2013 from Wells, G. J. Shuey, R. & Kiely, R. (2001). Globalization. New York: Nova Publishers. Wilson C.C. Gutierrez, F. & Chao, L. (2003). Racism, Sexism and the Media: The Rise of Class Communication in Multicultural America. New York: SAGE, pp. 88-109 Read More