Sociology of Health and Health Care - Sexual Division of Labor - Essay Example

Running head: Sexual division of labor Name xxxxxxxxxxxx Course xxxxxxxxxxxx Lecturer xxxxxxxxxxxx Date xxxxxxxxxxxx Introduction Globally widespread reforms have geared towards ensuring equity and equality in key life support concerns such as health, water, and sanitation. There are endeavors driven by institutions such as the United Nations and WHO in this pursuit. These include the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Universal medical access in some countries such as the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Despite widespread reforms driven by forces of globalization, health care, access and affordability continue to feature in global platforms as a major problem. There are disparities with regard to differences such as gender, social groups, race, economic power and ethnicity. The disparities change with the evolving living conditions. They are getting sophisticated and more intertwined with other social issues by the day. This thesis seeks to discuss the meaning of the sexual division of labor and indemnify the relationship between sexual division of labor and gender related health access and risk. It shall answer the question on whether there are gender related health differences delineating the direction of the same in Australia focusing on the implementation of Medicare and other social health developments, programs and initiatives. It shall apply theoretical and sociological concepts in contemporary health issues to establish the situation linking gender to the organization of health and its outcomes in Australia. It shall focus on the influence of social structure and human agency in Australian health. Sexual division of labor in Australia’s Health care Sexual division of labor refers to the social process in which there are distinctions in the way men and women are allocated various occupations and tasks. It develops in social institutions and other areas of life as driven by forces such as social, political and economical. It is a key element indicated as being pivotal in holding family units together. As such there are differences in power between men and women based on gender. Gender refers to distinctions made in societies between men and women based on their sex with reference to socio-cultural roles, expectations and limitations. This is what Weberism models define is societies as having strong structures. These structures inform power inequalities. Whereas there is sociological literature pointing out that family members of both sexes benefit from it (Baker, 2007), it is a key element in social health disparity and oppression of women (Kotiswaran, 2011). Various literature and empirical studies have repeatedly pointed such disparities in general health care as well as specific areas such as HIV/ AIDS, cancer and malaria (Benigni, 2003; Annandale, 2010). This is reflected in both access as well as risk factors. It influences the access, understanding, assimilation of health information, illness experience and its social significance with regard to functionalism and interactionalism. In addition to this, there are attitudes and perceptions towards medical services quality and maintenance (RAGCP, 2006). By international standards, Australia is indicated as being a heathy nation having the best health care systems in the world served by one of the most complex and largest industrial organization (Australian Health Ministers’ Conference (AHMAC)), 2008; National Preventative Health Taskforce, 2008). This health system is built on the rationale that a healthy population is key for viable economic growth as well as social wellbeing and prosperity. In the same stride, it borrows heavily from the need to provide equitable health care to all Australians without differentiation on whatever grounds. Much as the policies enshrined in the universal medicare sysytems make emphasis on equity there are disparities with regard to socioeconomic stratification, race, ethnicity and gender. Sexual division of labor has considerable influence in the policies developed in the nation although this varies with regions. Authorities, both national and territorial, acknowledge the existence of inequalities. This has prompted the development of strategies and interventions. These inequalities hail from the social determinants of health upon which social health models have been based. This is from as early as 1989 with the launching of the first National Women’s Health Policy. There have been varied approaches to social determinants of health Engendering the health agenda Today’s Australian woman is experiencing better times than in previous decades. It is also so in comparison with other countries. This is with respect to economic independence, education, representation in governance, and dependable health. The health agenda in the country has been engendered since 1989. The Australian Women's Health Network (AWHN) relates this to the fact that women are the majority of health consumers, providers and carers. With such a view, enhancing the health of women is enhancing the Australian community. However, reports indicate that there are still persisting inequalities against women with reference to economic, health and social issues (AWHN, 2008). Much as this apply to all women in the country there are more inequalities among the Aboriginals, Torres Strait Islanders, migrants, refugees and those with disabilities. There is a 20-year difference in life expectancy between Indigenous communities and other Australians (Marmot, 2005). Social structures and human agency concerns are pointed-out as influencing social determinants of health. Social hierachical issues are persistent in health organization and outcomes. Apart from being engendered, the engendering is interconnected across other facets such as economic capabilities as well as social stratifications and perceptions. Firstly, the women are generally less economically secure and independent relative to their men counterparts. Their unpaid work is less valued compared to men in the society as reflected in the superannuation system. The women are less likely to have superannuation than their men counterparts. If they get, it is lower than in men. Casual and part-time workers may earn salaries that are too small for the superannuation contribution scheme (Listening Tour Community Report, 2008). They also do leave paid work to participate in mothering and caring as well as for the purposes of marriages as housewives. The men have limitations in sharing family responsibilites due to long working hours. As such, there are barriers to progression in careers and attaining relatively fuller independence. This is due to limitation of time availability, unfavorable family conditions as home-makers, and the dominance of male-oriented cultures in organizations. From the social perspetives, there is more violence against women than men. This takes various forms such as sexual assult, physical, emotional, financial and psychological abuse. As such, the women will get sicker than men due to psychobiological factors and longer due to health access barriers. However, there is a greater inclination towards women disfavoring men. According to RAGCP (2006), men continually access health care that is lower than women. This is characterized by briefer consultations and the tendency to leave health issues unattended to. The RAGCP report also indicated a general decline with age of health consumption amongst the men. This is alluded to male socialization, masculinity, social connectedness and balance between life and work. A study in South Australia delineated by Pease and Pringle (2002) pointed out the men’s health depended on women’s health. The study also delineated a broad idea of male crisis based on issues such as feminism, gender-based violence against men, equity in boy child education and father’s child custody. Anandalle (2010) alludes this to a shift in which the partriarchy, once known to be a scourge against women, is an issue in men’s health. The shift is built upon Marxism and is characterized by a masculinity crisis in which there is increasing unemployment for some men. This is coupled with increasing employment of women, in the contrary, education and power representation. This fuels feminist health care organization and outcomes with more policies being driven to enhance the access of health care by women. In addition to this, it fuels up development of unhealthy and stressful environments for the men who are at pressure fighting the general societal tide inclined towards feminism. This has been demonstrated in mental health in which the societal expectations of self reliance and strength in men adversely contrasts with inadeqaute resources and poor communication skills (RAGCP, 2006). This is more so in rural and indigenous areas. These environments result in unequal social structure and disadvantages that result in health problems. According to Marxists, health problems should not be seen as resulting from weaknesses, but rather as resulting from the inequality (Bilton, 2002). This is a significant contributor in the longevity differences between men and women in industrialized economies. The Listening Tour Community Report of 2008 recorded that there was a need for a national men’s plan that is specific to funding and orientation. Men’s advocates and health service providers pointed out that there was a lack of public attention on men’s health. This is exaccerbated by the fact more men dominate high risk and occupationally unhealthy industries compared to their female counterparts (Listening Tour Community Report, 2008). The problem with the inequality is even greater with regard to minority groups such as the Indigenous communities, gay men and bisexuals. There is absence of health care services among the Indigenous communities such as the Aborigines which further leads to violence. These men are also less likely to seek health care services than their women counterparts and average Australians. This may be as a result of what Raphael, (2006) points out as the effect of citizens’ interpretation of their social status. This influences health inequalities especially in developed economies. The Aborigine men individual perception of their unequal social position fuels psychobiological conditions related to stress and feelings of unworthness. In response to this, there is the pursuit for more money to through more work hours in riskier environments and concerns such as drug and substance abuse. At the community level, there is distrust amongst members of a community due to the inequality leading to a general weakening of social support for health initiatives. Marxism takes further root with regard to materialism. Materialism concepts are fundamental in delineating health inequalities sources and the role of various social determinants of health. From a materialistic view, conditions of living are key determinants of health. These living conditions are aligned along unequal distribution of wealth amongst classess and between men and women. The general presentation is that women are more disadvantaged than men. In Australia and globally, economic independence for women is a core vision for gender equality entrenched in all systems. Whereas both men and women undergo poverty, women are more likely to be affected by the inequality. Australia’s employed men earn 16% more than their women counterparts (Listening Tour Community Report, 2008). In addition to this, more women are more likely to engage in low-paid, casual and part-time employment. This puts them in a position in which their access to health care is more disadvantaged than the men. This difference spills into retirement age. An individual’s socioeconomic position is highly determinant of health given that it points out material and disadvantage over one’s lifespan (Raphael, 2006). Materialism is vital in predicting psychosocial stress, physical health weakness and development problems so that those who are of a low status are at higher risk. This proposition often leads to a situation in which women get sicker, but men die quicker (Lorber & Moore, 2008). This is out of the differences brought by the differences in economic independence. On one hand, women will get sicker due to psychosocial stress leading to lower immunity. On the other, men die quicker out of the industrial stress and risk and an almost absence of a health policy oriented to them. With the industrial shift influenced by feminism, there is a challenge to the men, especially from the minority groups and the unemployed. This shift is characterized by material deprivation as the focus is in enhancing independence of women, often at the expense of the men. They end up adopting health-risking behaviors such as violence, crime, drugs, alcoholism. In dealing away the health disparities, there are a number of initiatives explored by authorities at various levels. Authoriries have developed more streamlined and equity focused funding criteria developed in working papers, new initiatives, and programmes. Literature hails these as valuable in dealing with health inequity. However, they do not adequately focus on the fundamental socioeconomical and structural health determinants fuelling differentials. Gender disparities continue to feature in the Australian health system. They fail to adequately research and acknowledge the sociological determinants of health thus lose out on relevance by not incorporating community and partners. Any interventions require to be multi-level and research based to build up a broad structural approach that is incusive. Such intervention should also be contexualized. This is despite the paradox behind establishing a system in which men and women have equal attention and funding by governments and health organization. The paradox is based on decontextualization of the gender issues. Conclusions Gender orientations are entrenched in the organization and outcomes of health interventions and programs. Sexual division of labor is relavant in articulating disparities in health care access and outcomes. Since 1989, health agenda has been engendered. However, the focus has been on enhancing the health of women, given that they were percieved as being less empowered. The men have been perceived as being potentially powerful and independent. In spite of the interventions, the women are continually facing inequalities. These are even more felt in less urbanized areas and minority communities. The continued focus on women has been found to a decreased attention on men so that their health organization and outcomes puts them at higher risk. References Annandale, E. (2010). Health Status and gender. In W. Cockerham, THe new blackwell companion to medical sociology (pp. 97-112). Oxford: Blackwell. Australian Health Ministers’ Conference. (2008). 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Brown, Perspectives in medical sociology (4th Ed) (pp. 41-61). Longrove: Waveland press. Marmot, M. (2005). Social determinants of health inequalities . Lancet, 365 , 1099-1104. National Preventative Health Taskforce. (2008). Australia: the healthiest country by 2020 A discussion paper. Canberra : Commonwealth of Australia . Pease, B., & Pringle, K. (2002). A man's world : changing men's practices in a globalized world. London: Zed Books. RAGCP. (2006). Men's Health: The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners position statement on the role of general practitioners in delivering health care to Australian men. Canberra: RAGCP. Raphael, D. (2006). Social Determinants of health: present status, unanswered questions, and future directions. International Journal of Health Services, 36 (4) , 651-677. Read More