History of Theoretical Perspectives - Literature review Example

Historyof Theoretical Perspectives Explaining the Causes and Responses to Problematic Behaviour in Children Since 1950s Name: Course: Date: History of Theoretical Perspectives Explaining the Causes and Responses to Problematic Behaviour in Children Since 1950s Introduction The development of an understanding of problematic behaviour in children has been associated to among other factors their environment, socialization process and their platforms of interaction. Through these platforms, children develop attributes and behaviouraltraits that may define their involvement in among other societal matters education, social work ad interpersonal relationships. In addition, the adoption of different behavioural traits may also result in the development of problematic and deviant behavioural traits inchildren. The main objective of thispaper is to provide a critical analysis to the history of theoretical perspectives that explain the causes and responses to the problematic behaviour in children since 1950s. This will be realized through an analysis of the psychodynamic, behaviourist, cognitive, humanistic and ecosystemic approaches Literature review Behavioural theory In mid 1950s, psychologist B. F. Skinner developed a behaviourist approach to the understanding of problematic behaviour in children. This was the behavioural theory of operant conditioning. This perspective of behaviour held that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour and that explains why any changes in an individual’s behaviour can be attributed to responses to events which Skinner identified as stimuli in the environment (Child 2007, p. 14). For Skinner the environment was the best alternative towards explaining the causes and the responses to problematic behaviour in children. A response such as solving a mathematical problem in a classroom setting could only be realized through rewards to reinforce behaviour of through punishment to ensure that a child does not repeat mistakes in the understanding of mathematical concepts (Docking 2002, p. 78). Operant conditioning in the view of Skinner allows children to develop behavioural attributes rather than acting in ways aimed at satisfying an objective. Behaviour in the view of operant conditioning is therefore a process developed through an internalization of environmental expectations and acting in accordance to the expectations (Porter 2003, p. 93). Elements of skinner’s behavioural approach to problematic behaviour in children Reinforcement is considered as the main element in Skinners theoretical approach to problematicbehaviour in children. Reinforcement in the view of Skinner isinclusive of anything that could be used in the strengthening of desired response(Porter 2003, p. 95). These include verbal praises, excellent grades in school and the provision of rewards in the form of presents. Reinforcement in the view of Skinner is also inclusive of negative reinforcements which include elements which when withdrawn increase the possibility of the most desirable behaviour being repeated(Child 2007, p. 18). This theory was considered as outstanding in mid-20th century since it provided explanations to a broad range of the cognitive attributes of human development. For instance, Skinner provides explanations on matters of motivation. This is in regard to deprivation and reinforcement schedules(Docking 2002, p. 79). In the view of Skinner verbal learning and language define the possibility of a child developing abusive tendencies if effective reward systems fail to be developed by the socializing agents who include the family and the education system (Gray 1994, p. 56). However, the views by skinner on the development of desirable traits diminish the power of free will while emphasizing on the role of social control in diagnosing and finding solutions to problematic behavioural traits among children(Gray 1994, p. 56). Skinner developed concepts such as conditioned behaviour, positive reinforcement and timeouts in the case of children(Docking 2002, p. 82). Despite the wide criticisms provided on this theoretical perspective, Skinner’s view on behaviourism maintained its relevance in the society. This is because, operant conditioning provided changes in the ways through which human behaviour can be studied and understood. His sentiments inspired different domains within the political platform including child rearing,education, self-help and behavioural therapy(Child 2007, p. 19). Aspects defining behaviour such as thoughts, actionsand emotions are all products of the environment. From this perspective Skinner provides a determinist approach to behaviourism considering that an aspect such as freewill is perceived as an illusion(Child 2007, p. 22). By the end of 1950s, Skinner’s view on behaviourism began to lose its popularity. This was based on its definition to psychological understanding of behaviour from an environmental approach eliminated the role of the mentalist perspective in understanding human behaviour(Gray 1994, p. 58). In addition, Skinner’s views were viewed as strict adherence to environmental aspects related to behaviour made it relatively impossible to develop a harmonized understanding of behaviour considering that different aspects of the environment affect individuals in diverse ways. The prevailing environmental conditions in one environment may be different from another hence affecting the process of developing generalization n matters of problematic behaviour in children. The psychodynamic perspective of problematic behaviour in children Psychodynamic approach to problematic behaviour was based on the assumption that behaviour resultsfrom subconscious feelings which arise from early life experiences. According to thisperspective the behaviour that children exhibit is an outward sign of the internal conflicts withinthe children (Ayers et al 2000, p. 15). The thoughts propounded by Erik Eriksen in 1959 led to the development of a psychosocial theory of human behaviour which held the assumption that children do not have the abilityto process and understand their troubles and this explains why their behavioural attributes may be expressed as forms of problematic behaviour. Tenets of psychodynamic theory as propounded by Erik Eriksen The ideas propounded by Erik Eriksen were greatly inspired by Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stages of understanding the psychodynamic theory of human behaviour (Gray &Noakes1994, p. 8). The difference between these two schools of thought was that Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual theory focussed on Id while Eriksen’s psychosocial theory to understanding problematic behaviour in children focused on Ego. Unlike Freud whose emphasis was on the conflict between Id and Super ego, Eriksen understood that the development of ego was developed by the role of culture and the society. Through the tenets of these two variables it was apparent that there would arise conflicts within the ego(Ayers et al 2000, p. 65) The development of the ego in the view of Eriksen could only be realized through the provision of solutions to and crises thatare social in nature. This involved the establishment of among other factors trust in other members of the society, the development of a sense of social identity and the ability of member of the society to help children in preparing for the future through the provision of platforms where they can exercise their future responsibilities. Accordingto Eriksen, any form of challenges or frustrations arising from the failure to allow children to find solutions to the internal conflict that they are facing may result to the development of problematic or deviant behaviour((Mukherji2001, p. 45). For instance, when a child is denied the opportunity of engaging in different social activities to develop social identity, there is risk that the child may live in isolation characterized by role confusion on the society. This especially in a school setting may be viewed as some form of unruly behaviour(Ayers et al 2000, p. 68). However, through the provision of platforms that endeavour to resolve cultural and social factors tha generate conflicts within the ego, a child is bound to experience the development of socially and culturally acceptable behavioural traits (Mortimore1983, P. 58). Eriksen expanded the understanding of psychodynamic perspective from Freudian pint of view by emphasizing on the adaptive and creative attributes of the ego. This was based on the notion that the prevailing circumstances in the environment of a child provide than with the ability to integrate into the society through means that will make them seem responsible while suppressing behaviour that is largely unacceptable within their societal and cultural settings (Hewett1998, p. 67). In addition, the creative nature of the tenets of psychosocial perspective in the field of psychodynamic provided an expansion to the notion of personality development to be inclusive of the entire life of an individual(Ayers et al 2000, p. 77). In his assertions, Eriksen proposed additional three stages to the five stages identified by Freud in his psychosexual theory. This was based on the assertion that even in adulthood there was still room for potential growth as this provided individual with platforms through which they could reflect on their successes and failures in their past life and determine the direction of their lives in future (Bertram & Pascal 2000, p. 14). Early adolescence in the view of Eriksen should be considered as the most essential stage in understanding the development of undesirable behaviour in children. This is largely based on the assumption that during this stage, children often begin the process of identifying themselves with their gender roles and expectations(Bertram & Pascal 2000, p. 18). However, it is also atthis stage thata child may begin the process of denying his gender and admiring the possibility of belonging to a different gender. This is a problematic behaviour considering the possibility of there being some form of conflicts within the individual. Eriksen attributes these frustrations to cultural and societal expectations of different genders and the provision of opportunities to children to exercise their gender roles according to their own desires(Ayers et al 2000, p. 80). The development of Eriksen’s perspective on psychodynamics held that personality development occurs in a predetermined order andevery subsequent stagebuilds on a previous stage(Hewett 1998, p. 88). The result of this integrated technique of developing personality lead to the acquisition of a set of life skills and abilities which operate in unity within an autonomous individual unlike Freud whose focus was on sexual orientation, Eriksen focused on children and how the socialization process affects the development of their sense of self(Bertram & Pascal 2000, p. 17). Social learning theory as a form of social cognitive theory In 1960s Albert bandura began the development of social learning theory through experiments on how behaviour in children develops. This theory was later to develop into social cognitive theory in late 1980s with the assertion that learning only happens in a social context that is characterized by the existence of dynamic and reciprocal interactions between people, the environment and behavioural traits(Gray &Noakes1994, p. 14). Through social learning theory social cognitive theory developed the understanding that the development of behaviour in children is a result of social influence and the existence of external and internal social reinforcements(Mortimore1983, P. 59). Tenets of social leaning theory According to Albert bandura, behaviour can only be acquired through interaction between individual and their environment. These individual are expected to make observations and learn from the factors prevailing in their environment(Gray &Noakes1994, p. 17). Bandura like Skinner assert the relevance of the environment in the development of human behaviour. However, unlike Skinner Bandura’s social learning theory emphasized on the essence of cognitive processes in the development of desirablebehaviour among children(Bertram & Pascal 2000, p. 44). Bandura argued that children often make observation of people around them and adapt thebehavioural traitsthatare dominant or those that they consider as important in their own development. The individualsthat these children observe in the view of Bandura are called models(Ayers et al 2000, p. 111). These models play therole of fashioning a child’s behaviour in relation to societal expectations. According to social learning theory, the environment is populated by influential models they include parents, peer groups and the teachers in schools. Through these models children are able to observe examples of behaviour as they imitate(Bertram & Pascal 2000, p. 48). The main reason why children use adults as their models is based on the assumption that these individuals have the ability to identify that which is culturally acceptable and that which is unacceptable. The existence of dominant behaviour will be observed and imitated by children on the assumption that such behaviour is dominant because it is socially acceptable (O’Brian 1998, p. 47). Children often pay attention to selected models while encoding behavioural traits. It is important to note that the decision of a child to imitate behaviour is often irrespective of whether the behaviour is gender appropriate. Despite this possibility, there are processes that the society has introduced that will make it more likely that the behaviour a child chooses to imitate is appropriate for its gender(Ayers et al 2000, p. 114). Through their interaction and the development of gender identity, children are more likely toimitate those they perceive assimilar to them. The possibility of a child abiding by the tenets of the behaviour that they imitate isdependent on the response given to that behaviour by the people around the child (Roberson 1996, p. 48). Reinforcement or punishment will be definitive of the possibility of the child repeating the imitated behaviour in future(Bertram & Pascal 2000, p. 48). In situations where children imitate the behavioural traits of a model and the consequences are rewarding, the child is more likely to continue imitating the behaviour while at the same time perfecting his abilities and skills to demonstrate an understanding of that behaviour. However, punishment diminishes the possibility of repeating that behavioural trait. Failure to punish undesirable behavioural traits leads to the development of problematic behaviour n children(Ayers et al 2000, p. 118) Bandura introduces the concept of identification in his theory to define the relationship between the model and the child. This is in relation to the adoption of behavioural traits, values and belief systems, and the attitudes of the people with whom the child is identifying(Bertram & Pascal 2000, p. 48). Shortcomings of the social learning theory In late 1970s, Albert bandura’s social learning theory was criticized on the basis that it laidmuch focus on the environment and the people surrounding the child instead of focusing on the actions of that child. The theory does not provide enough information on how a child handles and processes new information (McNamara &Moreton 2001, p. 67). Itistherefore possible to argue that Bandura assets that the society is the only determinant of the type of behaviour that children adopt (Papatheodorou 2005, p. 65). The theory was also criticized on its failure to hinge upon the progression of growth and development as a chronological activity that is largely based on age. This means that the theory fails to consider the role of s child’s attributes in defining the type of behaviour that he or she is to imitate from different members of the society(Papatheodorou 2005, p. 65). Humanistic theory of human behaviour Thehumanisticperspective of humanbehaviour was developed by Carl Rodgers and Abraham Maslow in 1950s, as a way of contradicting the assertions by psychodynamic theory and behavioural theories of human behaviour. The humanisticperspective expanded its influence until late 1980s with its impact being understood on the basis of its ability to offer a new set of values on how to approach and understand human nature and the prevailing human conditions(Ayers et al 2000, p. 40). The theory also offered an expanded platform of the methodologies of studying human behaviour. Through this theory, it was possible to develop new approaches on how to practice psychotherapy on individual possessing problematic behaviour(McNamara &Moreton 2001, p. 70). Tenets of the humanistic approach According to the humanistic approach the development of different behavioural traits among individuals is based on the assumption that people have free will. This allows them to make personal choices and accept to live by the consequences of their actions (Cohen and Cohen1987, p. 45). According to this school of thought, people are basically good and this is an innate attribute that compels them with the desire to attain self-actualization through good behaviour. This theory can be said to be emphasizing on the personal worth of individuals hence alluding to an optimistic and noble capacityof man to attain full satisfaction of life by overcoming hardships and pain. In the views of Rodgers and Maslow, the desire to realize personal growth and fulfilment is the most essential goal of human beings. It means that all human beings, though in different ways, often seek psychological growth while at the same time seeking to enhance them. Despite the acceptance of the desire of man to realize self-actualization, Rodgers and Maslow disagree on how this actualization is to be realized(Cohen and Cohen 1987, p. 46). According to Maslow, self-actualization can be realized through the creation of awareness and acceptance of oneself and the ability to develop mutual relations without being overly dependent on others (Mathieson & Price2002, p. 45). In addition, this form of actualization is also realizable through development of tendencies towards peak experiences that generate emotional and spiritual satisfaction among individuals. In the view of Maslowself-actualization and the eradication of problematic behaviour is therefore a result of subjective deliberations on the motivations of an individual(Mathieson & Price 2002, p. 45). In the view of Carl Rodgers, self-actualization can only be realized through the development of an understanding of an individual’s feelings, thoughts, and belief systems. This is understandable by differentiating congruent from incongruent behaviour to reality(Bernard 1994, p. 50).Incongruence in the view of Rodgers encompasses the existence of a discrepancy between the understanding of self-concept and reality. Congruence is associated with the existence of an understanding between self-concept and reality. The development of a child’s behavioural traits will be dependent on the congruence or incongruence that exists in his or her relationship with the society (Blyth 1995, p. 88). Promotion of incongruence is when the society selectively applies reinforcement of reward and punishment and this makes the child to develop negative attitudes towards experiences that are socially unacceptable while embracing those that attract positive thoughts and acknowledgement from the society(Bernard 1994, p. 54). Shortcomings of the humanistic theory Humanistic approach to human behaviour is considered as unscientific approach. This is based on its assumption that human behaviour can only be understood through the understanding of the inward drives that define human nature, these drives are different in every individual and this explains why it is relatively difficult to develop generalizations about human behaviour (Mukherji2001, p. 70). The theory also ignores the role of the subconscious mind in defining human behaviour. The theory also fails through the belief that free will opposes the determinist laws of scientific endeavours (Bernard 1994, p. 56). Conclusion The adoption of different behavioural traits may also result in the development of problematic and deviant behavioural traits in children. The main objective of this paper is to provide a critical analysis to the history of theoretical perspectives that explain the causes and responses to the problematic behaviour in children since 1950s. Behavioural theory, psychodynamic, social learning and humanistic theories are essential in the explanation of the history of theoretical explanation to causes and responses to problematic behaviour in children. References Ayers, H., Clarke, D. and Murray, A. 2000, Perspectives on Behaviour: A Practical Guide to Effective Interventions for Teachers. London: Fulton Child, D. 2007,Psychology and the Teacher. London: Continuum. McNamara, S. and Moreton, G. 2001,Changing Behaviour: Teaching Children with Emotional andBehavioural Difficulties in Primary and Secondary Classrooms. London: David Fulton Bernard, A. 1994, Children in Control: Facing up to Behaviour Problems. Bristol: Lucky Duck. Bertram, T. and Pascal, C. 2000,The OECD Thematic Review of Early Childhood Education and Care: Background Report for the United Kingdom. www.oecd.org Blyth, E. 1995, Preventing Behaviour Problems: Practice Issues in Education Social Work. Improving Social Work Education and Training, (19) London: Central Council of Education and Training in Social Work Cohen, L. and Cohen, A. (Ed.) 1987,Disruptive Behaviour: A Source Book for Teachers. London: Harper and Row Docking, J.W. (revised and updated by MacGrath, M.)2002,Managing Behaviour in the Primary School. London: David Fulton / University of Surrey, Roehampton. Galvin, P. 1999,Behaviour and Discipline in Schools 2. Practical, Positive and Creative Strategies for the Classroom. London: David Fulton Publishers. Galvin, P., Miller, A. and Nash, J. 1999,Behaviour and Discipline in Schools 1. Devising and Revising a Whole-School Policy. London: David Fulton Publishers. Gray, P., Miller, A. and Noakes, J. (Eds.) 1994,Challenging Behaviour in Schools.Teacher Support Practical techniques and Policy Development. London: Routledge. Hewett, D. 1998,Challenging Behaviour: Principles and Practices. London: David Fulton. Mathieson, K. Price, M 2002,Better Behaviour in Classrooms: A Framework for Inclusive Behaviour Management. London: Routledge Falmer. Mortimore, P. 1983,Behaviour Problems in Schools: An Evaluation of Support Centres. London; Croom Helm. Mukherji, P. 2001,Understanding Children’s Challenging Behaviour. Cheltenham: Nelson ThornesLtd.. O’Brian, T. 1998,Promoting Positive Behaviour. London: David Fulton. Papatheodorou, T 2005,Behaviour Problems in the Early Years. A Guide for Understanding and Support. Oxon: Routledge Falmer. Porter, L. 2003,Young Children’s Behaviour. Practical Approaches for Caregivers and Teachers.Second Edition. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Roberson, J. 1996,Effective Classroom Control. Understanding Teacher – Student Relationships.London: Hodder and Stoughton. Read More