Human Exceptionalism - Literature review Example

Student Name: Instructor’s Name: Title: Human Exceptionism Course: Institution: CONSEQUENCES OF HUMАN ЕХСЕРTIОNАLISM Introduction In the recent past, the role of human exceptions and associated concepts in the contemporary society has elicited heated debate. Opinions are particularly mixed on the value-based attachment not only to nature but to also the nature-human relation (Glaeser, 2011). On one end, the anti-human exceptionists have embraced and become more sensitive to animal rights as demonstrated in the increasing legislative activities on animal right especially in America and Europe (Lacroix, 2006:6). However, pro-human receptionists insist that human is unique above everything else. The different school of thoughts and related issues like abortion, assisted euthanasia, animal rights are currently at the centre of public attention. Indeed, the importance of the current debate is far reaching. This paper aims at describing human exceptioning and discussing its main consequences on both animal and human alike. After the brief background, what follows is the conceptualization of the main term. Next is the discussion of the various consequences of human exceptioninsm. The last part is a conclusion drawn from the discussions and suggestions. What is Human Exceptionlaism? The term, human exceptionalism can be understood as the notion that human beings are fundamentally unique hence should be distinguished from all other animals or species. A clear divide between human animals and others animals often fall into either the view that human has unique traits different from other animals like self-consciousness or the fact that human exhibit some actions such as tool-use, use of language and symbols, mourning, getting high to relieve boredom, association, friendship, norms and taboos among others (Smith, 2007). Human exceptionsim can also be understood as the direct opposite of Non-Anthropocentric Personhood which perceive other no-human beings including animals and robots has having the potential for personhood status, and therefore warrant some moral considerations in how they are treated (Smith, 2007). One of the main distinguishing features between humans and other animals concern the ability to have a temporally precise imitation (Bryson, 2009). Giddens, and Sutton (2010) defines human exceptinims as the theoretical images of the human community or society based on the exceptional nature of the human species as a result of the cultural inheritance such as language and social organization as well as technology. On the other hand, Agamben (2004) defines human excpetinism as the scientific and philosophical as well as the cultural construction of the “man” as unique or distinguished from , yet always in relation to, animals . Using an “anthropological machine” as an illustration (33-39), Agamben illustrates the fluid and its arbitrariness to establish who is and who is not human. He concludes that humans are not the so-called innocent, natural category as often perceived by the human mode of thinking. Instead, it is constantly being redefined in order to facilitate a more open ended and an evolving consideration not only for animals but also in technology aimed at the preservation of the various privileges, exemptions and ethical orientations to which humans are often are exclusively given (Agamben, 2004). Consequences of Human Exceptionalism Human exceptionism is associated with numerous consequences on both human being and animals. One of the effects linked to the philosophy of Human exceptionalism is ecological or environmental destruction. According to Agamben (2004), the tendency towards the separation between humanity and the rest of the world or life in the planet enhances ecological catastrophe. He adds that this philosophy encourages the creation of an inferno, which spreads and threatens all living things owing to man’s irresponsibility (102). Human beings seem more incapable of acting as full members of the world system because of the idea of exceptionism, men fails to appreciate others. Agamben believes that the relationship between man as he tries to oppose himself to all other non-humans, differentiating between himself and nature while losing a fire on the world is not any coincidence (Agamben, 2004). One of the consequences is the tendency to ill or unethical treatment of the non-humans or animals and by extension leading to environmental threat. According to Paquet and Darimont (2010), Human excpetinims, not only inadvertently but also and intendedly, continue to threaten the survival of animal species and the sustenance of the natural ecological balance as well as the evolutionary processes in the world over (P.117). According to Giddens, and Sutton (2010) human exceptinioms comprise of a paradigm shift that is quite unecological. According to the tow scholars, this paradigm tends to blind people from the importance of environmental challenges as it assumes that that human can solve their own problems in whatever form and that human beings are not subject to the ecological problems facing other species. Plumwood (2007), believe that idea of Human Exceptionalism, has permitted the ruthless and unethical exploitation of nature and people than other cultures (anti-human exceptionistic cultures). He explains that exceptionalism is often oriented towards unlimited power over nature (Plumwood, 2007, par1). In reaction to the ill treatment of non-humans, Derrida (cited in Dunlap, 2013) for instance, examines the ways in which a long history of Western philosophy has constructed “man” against “animal”; and reminds us for the need to conserve the animals arguing that an animal also posses human attributes like response and “an insistent gaze (p.372). Human advancement through Medical and technological development have allowed the removal of or at least circumvented the numerous factors that would have otherwise inhibited or prevented human population growth. The high rate of human population simply implies that we are unsustainable exploitation of resources; they are used far more quickly than they can be produced. Because of this unprecedented population growth rate, there is biodiversity loss, global temperature and concentrations of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere (Living Planet Report, 2010). Put differently, human activities with less regard to other non-humans and animals is bring about significant impacts throughout the ecosphere, affecting Global climates, habitats and atmospheric conditions. Consequently, many species have been forced into extinction, or are simply not able to adapt in good time to meet rapid environmental changes. The belief in Human exceptionism is behind the various incidents of abortion. According to Harris (1999), a human being should have adequate or well-developed cognitive abilities like self-awareness. This may tend towards a potentially disposable caste comprising of millions of humans: In this case, it may include all unborn life like early embryos, which may not pose a brain, and fetuses are generally regarded as unconscious. Again, this may also include infants who have not yet attained full development of sufficient capacities (Smith, 2007). Human exceptionalism is highly linked to the promotion of Social injustice. This can be linked to a philosophical tendency to locate or reduce non-humans or animals outside moral consideration, hence encouraging connotations and practices that justify human domination of nonhuman nature (Peterson, 2001). Human exceptionalism creates an unjust system, one in which human beings as opposed to other animals are viewed as inherently deserves more love and ethical treatment (Dunlap, 2013). By deeming themselves as inherently superior and more worthy of consideration compared to other animals, human beings present their behaviors that can be viewed as unjust to other people at least perceived as inferior and destroys other beings as well as disrupting Earth’s ecosystems and biosphere. Human excpetionism may lead to subordination of certain group of people in the society, people whose work not valued by the system that which uses human exceptionalism reasoning to perpetuate the power and privilege of a few at the top of a hierarchy at the expense of the many who are kept at the bottom (Dunlap, 2013). Human exceptionism are also associated with some positive impacts. Defined as the uniqueness of human life, is also vital and an important understanding that gives human special role and duties taking care of nature and animals . According to Smith (2007), human exceptionalism gives human beings the user the opportunity to rise to our duties to nature and animals. He adds that if we don’t uphold Human exceptionalism, that is viewing ourselves as just like other animals in the world system, then there would significant reverse the centuries’ moral achievement and return to the most brutal ways. Conclusion and Recommendations This paper sought to discuss the various consequences of human exceptionims . From the preceding sections , it is clear that there are various consequences such as ecological destruction and social injustice, but there is also a more positive side ; advocating for human rights and awareness on the need to rise above our ego to appreciating out the role and duties towards nature and animals. More effort should therefore be directed towards the self-realization baased on the development of the man’s intrinsic capacity for compassion, while taking an active role and interest in the self-realization of all beings including animals . This can go along way if human beings widen and deepen their sense of identity beyond their self-ego, friends, class, and friends, in order to accommodate all forms of life in the universe (Kassiola, 2003). There is also need to appreciate or recognize the consequences of our destructive actions within our community or society and undertake a more proactive approach to solving associated consequences or issues. This can only be achieved with the review of the current laws that govern the relationship between humans and nonhumans. Bibliography Adamson, J., and Ruffin, K. N (Eds). (2003). Explorations in Environmental Political Theory, Joel Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 149-177. Agamben, Giorgio (2004). The open. Stanford: Stanford UP Bryson, J. J. (2009). Representations underlying social learning and cultural evolution.Interaction Studies, 10(1):77–100. Dunlap, A. (2013). Eco-­‐Dystopia: Reproduction and Destruction in Margaret Atwood’s Oryx and Crake Journal of Ecocriticism 5(1) January 2013 Giddens, P., and Sutton, W. (2010). Sociology: Introductory Readings, Polity Press, USA Glaeser, Bernhard (2001). The changing human-nature relationship (HNR) in the context of GEC, Veröffentlichung der Abteilung Normbildung und Umwelt des Forschungsschwerpunkts Technik, Arbeit, Umwelt des Wissenschaftszentrums Berlin für Sozialforschung, No. FS II 01-301 Harris, J. (1999). The Concept of the Person and the Value of Life,” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, December 1999, pp. 293-308 Lacroix CA. (2006). Current trends in animal law and their implications for the veterinary profession. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract, 36(2):341-53, vi. Living Planet Report (2010) Biodiversity, Biocapacity and Development. World Wildlife Fund. 2010. Accessed online at: http://www.worldwildlife.org/sites/living-planet-report/WWFBinaryitem18260.pdf. Paquet, P.C., and Darimont, C.T (2010). Wildlife conservation and animal welfare: two sides of the same coin Animal Welfare 2010, 19: 177-190 ISSN 0962-7286 Peterson, A. L. (2001). Being Human, Ethics, Environment and Our Place in the World.Berkeley: University of California Plumwood, V. (2007). Human Exceptionalism and the Limitations of Animals: a review of Raimond Gaita's The Philosopher's Dog http://www.australianhumanitiesreview.org/archive/Issue-August-2007/EcoHumanities/Plumwood.html Rollin BE (2006). An ethicist's commentary on raising the legal status of animals. Can Vet J 2006;47(6):518, 520. Smith, Wesley J. (2007). Four Legs Good, Two Legs Bad: The Anti-human Values of “Animal Rights” http://www.humanlifereview.com/index.php/archives/28-2007-winter/72-four-legs-good-two-legs-bad-the-anti-human-values-of-anima Read More

According to Agamben (2004), the tendency towards the separation between humanity and the rest of the world or life in the planet enhances ecological catastrophe. He adds that this philosophy encourages the creation of an inferno, which spreads and threatens all living things owing to man’s irresponsibility (102). Human beings seem more incapable of acting as full members of the world system because of the idea of exceptionism, men fails to appreciate others. Agamben believes that the relationship between man as he tries to oppose himself to all other non-humans, differentiating between himself and nature while losing a fire on the world is not any coincidence (Agamben, 2004).

One of the consequences is the tendency to ill or unethical treatment of the non-humans or animals and by extension leading to environmental threat. According to Paquet and Darimont (2010), Human excpetinims, not only inadvertently but also and intendedly, continue to threaten the survival of animal species and the sustenance of the natural ecological balance as well as the evolutionary processes in the world over (P.117). According to Giddens, and Sutton (2010) human exceptinioms comprise of a paradigm shift that is quite unecological.

According to the tow scholars, this paradigm tends to blind people from the importance of environmental challenges as it assumes that that human can solve their own problems in whatever form and that human beings are not subject to the ecological problems facing other species. Plumwood (2007), believe that idea of Human Exceptionalism, has permitted the ruthless and unethical exploitation of nature and people than other cultures (anti-human exceptionistic cultures). He explains that exceptionalism is often oriented towards unlimited power over nature (Plumwood, 2007, par1).

In reaction to the ill treatment of non-humans, Derrida (cited in Dunlap, 2013) for instance, examines the ways in which a long history of Western philosophy has constructed “man” against “animal”; and reminds us for the need to conserve the animals arguing that an animal also posses human attributes like response and “an insistent gaze (p.372). Human advancement through Medical and technological development have allowed the removal of or at least circumvented the numerous factors that would have otherwise inhibited or prevented human population growth.

The high rate of human population simply implies that we are unsustainable exploitation of resources; they are used far more quickly than they can be produced. Because of this unprecedented population growth rate, there is biodiversity loss, global temperature and concentrations of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere (Living Planet Report, 2010). Put differently, human activities with less regard to other non-humans and animals is bring about significant impacts throughout the ecosphere, affecting Global climates, habitats and atmospheric conditions.

Consequently, many species have been forced into extinction, or are simply not able to adapt in good time to meet rapid environmental changes. The belief in Human exceptionism is behind the various incidents of abortion. According to Harris (1999), a human being should have adequate or well-developed cognitive abilities like self-awareness. This may tend towards a potentially disposable caste comprising of millions of humans: In this case, it may include all unborn life like early embryos, which may not pose a brain, and fetuses are generally regarded as unconscious.

Again, this may also include infants who have not yet attained full development of sufficient capacities (Smith, 2007). Human exceptionalism is highly linked to the promotion of Social injustice. This can be linked to a philosophical tendency to locate or reduce non-humans or animals outside moral consideration, hence encouraging connotations and practices that justify human domination of nonhuman nature (Peterson, 2001). Human exceptionalism creates an unjust system, one in which human beings as opposed to other animals are viewed as inherently deserves more love and ethical treatment (Dunlap, 2013).

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