American Exceptionalism - Essay Example

? American exceptionalism Introduction Tyrrell observes that American exceptionalism details the beliefthat the United States is an exceptional country when compared to other countries and their historical development. In most instances, this idea is held by American conservatives. America has shown a lot of exceptional leadership in promoting international human rights; this started in the year 1945. American exceptionalism refers to unique characteristics of the United States which are based on American political ideologies and individual freedom. This concept has its origin from US political institutions formed from 1776-1789, the declaration of US independence in 1776, the American revolution of 1776-83, and the adoption of American constitution in 1787. The American Revolution and its liberation from the British are historical aspects of American exceptionalism. The American’s prosperity has its origin in political differences, social mobility, assimilation of immigrants, liberty of Americans, and America’s vast resources. Discussion The history of America is inadequate because many aspects have been left out or are distorted in the traditional narratives. This particularly relates to the history of American Indians and their contribution to American history (Tyrrell, 2010). The issues of races and slavery are tragic exception in American history. The end to the slave trade was a rebirth of freedom in America. Ignatieff (2005) says that Americanism exceptionalism has a negative perspective which explains that US is exceptionally unpleasant, violent and racist. The term exceptionalism was first coined by the German Marxists who intended to offer an explanation behind US rising above socialism and Marxism and embracing capitalism. However, Marxists conclude that exceptionalism is more than class conflict. Other scholars prefer to use the term uniqueness or differences to explain US exceptionalism. United States exceptionalism has been argued to emerge from its political, religious and intellectual aspects. It is also perceived to be enduring. Kolodziej and Roger (2008) notes American exceptionalism is a fundamental determinant of the American Psyche and has its values embedded in the culture of Americans civilians. The term has assumed changes over time which can be clearly seen from the reign of various US presidents. For example, President Thomas Jefferson rejected the rule of European countries through voting and dictatorship. President Washington tried to insulate US politics from corruption and foreign intervention, Abraham Lincoln strived to unify Americans and President Andrew Jackson tried to raise the status of US citizens. President Delano Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson made efforts to make the world safe for trade and democracies through their intervention, which made World War I and II come to an end. President Truman identified American security, democratic values and US economic well being as necessary in competition with the Soviet Union. President Regan Portrayed US as an exceptional country that should be emulated by other nations. President George W. Bush tried to maximize freedom available to the Americans (Kolodziej and Rogers, 2008) Kolodziej and Rogers (2008) focus their discussions on how president George W. Bush American regime interpreted exceptionalism to expand the American powers. Exceptionalism provides US a justification for the rejection of foreign policy, which US views as misguided and the criticism by US citizens to increase the scope of international law and institutions. President Bush tried to maximize Americans freedom through US powers, global objectives, and moral status at the expense of reforming America’s image in the face of other countries internationally. The main focus of US in the present days is to resist any limitations on its powers as it pursues its aspiration of exceptionalism worldwide. This can be clearly seen from the little support provided to International Criminal Court (ICC) by US. The American citizens and their leaders believe that the American constitution, US domestic legal practices and practices provide them a more effective and legitimate protections. The Americans view these organs as more crucial for their military and civilian officials than any other foreign bodies such as the ICC, which is controlled by foes of US (Kolodziej and Roger, 2008) (Kolodziej and Rogers (2008) conclude that America rejects any limitations in the executions of its powers by foreign legal bodies such as the ICC. These rejections started with the Bush administration and have persisted to date. Kolodziej and Rogers note that US support the formation of tribunals for the trial of International crimes, but fail to establish precedents. This is because it fears that the precedents may prevent America’s use of power in the future or expose the Americans civilians, political leaders and military to the ICC jurisdiction. American exceptionalism is a logic found in the Doctrines of President Bush and provides no limitations to America use of its powers. US states that if Americans political values and practices are exceptional, US use of exceptional measures is justified in maintaining and promoting its values. The US preventive and preemptive war is supported by the ideology of exceptionalism. Since exceptionalism exists in US, the Americans leaders can claim any privileged right, define the threats to US political regime and devise appropriate mechanisms to combat such treats. US has more powers than the international treaties and legal institutions; thus, no country or legal body can hinder US pursuant of its nation interest as well as its security policies (Kolodziej and Rogers, 2008) The arguments that United States is 'exceptional' and should be exempt from traditional rules governing international behavior McDougall possess the question, “what does it mean when a person says US is exceptional?” If the answer provided is that US is exceptional, then the claim is exceptional itself because there are no two counties which are similar in characteristics. He adds that if the Americans believe their country is unique, then there is nothing exceptional about US exceptionalism because all nations have myths that they cherish. McDougall also suggests that if US claims to be exceptional good, it is also exception good for falling short of its ideals (McDougall, 2012) These American ideals are the dedication to religious and civil liberty, justice, equality, peace and harmony with other countries, prosperity and social mobility. McDougall also says that if exceptionalism means the Americans are exempted from the laws of nature that govern other nations, then US exceptionalism is sub specie aeternitatis. This means that the belief that a country is under divine dispensation can inspire the pride of Goethe before a fall (meaning no person should not tempt God the lord) or the unpleasant ends to which reckless adolescent are prone to. Finally, if the term exceptionalism means that US power, status and values exempt US from the rules of behavior US establish and enforce on other nations, then the Americans enemies, allies and neutral countries would fight back (McDougall, 2012). Wood (1999) observes that because of the reasons mentioned by McDougall, exceptionalism is more dangerous to US than its value. The reason why the term should be dismissed from the historical discourse of America is that it never existed until in the mid-20th century. There were no puritans, founding fathers, civil war statesmen, 19th century poets, pastors or propagandists who conceptualized exceptionalism. All these individuals never believed that US was exceptional. This is because no country can isolate its self from the other countries. In 1835, Alexis De-Tocqueville highlighted the features of the modern world democracy; including aristocracy (De-Tocqueville, 2007) He inferred that the position of the Americans was exceptional. He also noted that no democratic citizens will ever reach similar heights. However, Alexis de Tocqueville says that the term only applied to the US position rather than to its citizens. Alexis de Tocqueville also noted that the values and the institutions of US are contrary to those of other countries. De Tocqueville says the conception of the term exceptionalism as a birth right is an anachronism (Wood, 1999). In 1906, German sociologist, Werner Sombat posed the question: “Why is U.S unique among the industrial urban societies?” The answer that Wood provides is that the US working class showed no interest in the ideologies or politics of socialism. The Americans were contented with the ideologies of capitalism alone. Werner Sombat only gave the reasons why the workers were contented by capitalism. He did not formulate any idea that could be translated to mean exceptionalism. Werner Sombat instead made reference to Americans popular culture and the ideologies of the American spiritual culture. Werner Sombat noted that the United States was not unique because of capitalism. This was because capitalism also existed in other counties. The factors that made capitalism prominent in the United States included the protestant ethics, democratic consensus, existence of two party system, high standard of living and social mobility. Werner Sombat concludes that Americans were not exceptional, but were a main focus of sociological research (O'Connor, 2007). The origin of the ideology of US as an exceptional country was influenced by two transnational movement in the early 20th century. These movements are the Catholic Church and the Communist International. The two movements had fears that US wanted to be immune to universal appeal. In 1784, Bishop John Carroll established the first Catholic Church in US (Hodgson 2006, p. 284). The Vatican portrayed confusion in the development of church doctrines and hierarchies. These features were crucial in America as the people enjoyed much religious freedom and material possession. A century afterwards, the Bishops in Europe were alarmed by the reports of the American bishops. They were told that the bishops eroded the church doctrines and the catholic immigrants were disobedient (McDougall, 2012). In 1899, Pope Leo XIII issued a circular that condemned a heresy, which he referred as Americanism. The term was taken to mean that they were no reasons why the Americans should embrace exceptionalism. The church circular attributed the idea of Americanism origin from US revolutionary origin, individualism, Culture of Aglo-Saxon, egalitarianism, liberalism, and separation of the church from the state. This had the influence of making the American Catholics deviate from church’s moral path (Hollander, 1992). In 1920, The American Communist Party took the direction of the Vatican and German sociologist Sombart. The party leader (Jay Loverstone) tried to explain why there was minimal achievement in the mobilization of factory workers at Pittsburgh and Detroit by their party. The reason he gave was that capitalism in the United States was exceptionally productive and stable. This made it difficult to raise awareness among the workers. Thus, according to Jay Loverstone, this formed the origin of the term American exceptionalism (McDougall, 2012) The idea of exceptionalism is historically shared by countries presented with the ideologies of development and enlightenment by the United States. The concept of American exceptionalism is crucial because it helps in the analysis of the strange characteristics of US, particularly its civil nationalism. The ideals of civic nationalism ensure America is held to a standard of behavior that cannot be applied to many other countries. These can be interpreted to mean US is above the rule of tradition that govern other countries (O'Connor and Martin, 2006) The Ideology of Americanism O'Connor and Martin (2006) conclude that anti- Americanism is not a usual phenomenon. It has its origin from the creation of US in the late 18th century. O'Connor and Martin identify four phases in the development of Anti-Americanism. There are also five different types of Anti- Americanism. These are political, social, religious, cultural, and psychological types of Anti-Americanism. The strength of anti-Americanism varies in different historical periods. The focus on anti-Americanism has increased with time as the rate of its diffusion increases. The change of government in US cannot make the anti-Americanism disappear. This is because it is fuelled by the parochialism of many Americans and the wide spread ignorance of US by most of its leaders. The ideology of Anti-Americanism is marked by ambivalence. This means that US is hated while at the same time loved in parts. Ambivalence has its origin from the American myth of exceptionalism. O'Connor and Martin note that, in America, exceptionalism is more of an ideology than of country. The concept of liberty, individualism, populism, laissez-faire beliefs and egalitarianism occupy a central position in Americans idea of exceptionalism. Exceptionalism is a myth designed to conceal the domestic social and political conflict that are found within US Country (O'Connor and Martin, 2006). In the Middle East and the Muslim countries, anti- American is understood as an irrational mind set that has minimum impact on the role of US in the world. The Americans and the Muslims are viewed to be in constant collision with each other. This collision has nothing to do with the history of American foreign policy. Anti- Americanism has its origin from American orientalism. Anti-Americanism in the Middle East is seen as discourse to conceal the diversity of issues within the Muslim countries, their changing relationship with the US and a cover up for the long existence of the history of American foreign policy in the Middle East region (O'Connor and Martin, 2006) Nau (2002) clearly highlights that US has never felt safe when it is present on the global scene. The main reason is not external threats to the United States because of security reasons or prosperity. This is because of America’s self image at the face of other nations. The image of US separates US from other countries as the Americans portray themselves as exceptional society in the modern world. The image of US exceptionalism remains suspicious as well as uncomfortable for other society that shares similar aspect. The aspect shared includes multi-lateral diplomacy, economic globalization and entangling alliances. The idea of exceptionalism creates a tension that does not favor the thriving of American policy in foreign nations. Ignatieff notes this when he observes that the international human rights policy of US are rejected by many nations. The reason is the application of double standards (Ignatieff, 2005). There are many negative attitudes towards US structures worldwide. This includes United Nations, various arms that control agreements, the humanitarian interventions and continued support of the cold war alliances in Japan and Europe. Others include the US efforts to establish free trade among nations, financial support and immigrations laws. All the various structures of US globally seek to strengthen and defend American interests. The other international countries seek to win the support of other countries belonging to non American world to redefine Americans image. These countries promote strategies for expansion of democracies, collaborated efforts in the fight against nuclear weapons, and many other institutions that aim at eradicating poverty, pollutions, drugs trafficking problems and AIDS (Nau, 2002). The United States is caught in various realities as it tries to engage various states to reform its image. The Americans are able to establish a balance of power and win the allied countries support when a threat arises. However, when peace returns to the Americans, they loss the support of other countries (Nau, 2002). Lieven (2012) observes that the September 11th 2001 attack on US served to strengthen US nationalistic ideologies. This American Nationalism was used exploitatively by the George W. Bush administration. Lieven also says that close to American nationalism is the US popular culture of the national language and symbols that penetrate every aspect of Americans lifestyle. With these two, Americans try to differentiate themselves from other nations. The cause of Muslim resentment towards US has its linkage to the American foreign policy in Middle East, particularly American close ties with Israel. The United States has been supporting Israel since the cold war to the present. In the present days, America has been supporting Israel in the Gaza strip conflicts. The present anti- Americanism has its origin from US leadership in the global affairs. The US has been creating international order that has inhibited the emergency of any other country as a super power (O'Connor and Martin 2006, p. 5). As demonstrated by Crockatt, the development of an understanding between the Muslims and the Americans has been on the decline ever since the 9th September, 2001 attacks on US. The September 9th 2001 attacks on the US have continued to fuel mistrust and animosity between US and Middle East countries. This can be seen with the invasion of Iraq by US and the terrorists’ attacks on Americans across the globe and the worsening of conflict between Palestinians and Israel. The US has also tried to influence its citizens of Muslim origin, who are opposed to terrorism to support the attack of Muslim nations (Crockatt, 2007). There has also been mishandling of People of Muslim origin based on their religious customs and behaviors. All this information shows the increasing gap between US and Muslim nations (O'Connor and Martin, 2006). Despite of the widening gap between the Muslim world and U.S, the American history is shaped through the use of violent force against enemies within and outside its boarders. The American Revolution will always take its course as long as US exists (Kahn, 2012). The National Security Strategy of the United States of America (2002) observes that the United States will not sit back, relax and watch terrorists bring down their country. The U.S requests countries to cooperate to fight the dangers of terrorism and chaos. Terrorism is conducted by individuals who have enormous resentment towards US. This has a linkage to Middle East countries, such as Afghanistan. American believes such countries are influence by poverty to engage in terrorism. Americans believe that by working with other countries to bring democracy, development, free trade and markets, such resentments can be eliminated. O’Connor and Martin (2006) observe that contemporary anti-Americanism is a reaction by foreign countries that are vastly influenced by the United States. The Modern Anti- American is perceived to persist as long as the nations with greater influence continue to exist. O’Connor and Martin note that anti-Americanism remains whether the US tries to be more or less benign. This can be seen from the reign of America under President Bill Clinton and George W. Bush. In spite of increasing resentment against the US by various nations, the Americans are also loved at the same time. This is influenced by the US democracy and its promise to individual liberty and opportunities. The United States’ popular culture is also influential. The attractive US powers are a good resource for diplomatic relations with other nations O’Connor and Martin note that American ambivalence has its success from the controversial history of U.S. The subsequent importance of America on other countries and their citizens is also crucial. The myth of America’s success history is also seen as a success to other countries internationally. This provides a stake to individuals even if they are not residing in the United States. The American belief in themselves with disregard to the beliefs held about them in them in the world. This makes US accept any signs of foreign love while at the same time being hurt by any signs of resentment towards the state and its citizen. O’Connor and Martin suggest that US need to be loved because of the promise they hold for most nations and their citizens (O’Connor and Martin, 2006). The hatred emerges when the promises turn to be a disappointment and disillusionment. This happens when the foreign nations land into America’s tough realities. O’Connor and Martin conclude that anti–Americanism begins from among US citizens. This is caused by the widening distances between the promises made and the reality of the promises. O’Connor and Martin say that this widening gap is caused by the fact that the American myth originally belonged to countries in Europe. The Americans adopted it from Europe (O’Connor and Martin, 2006). After adoption of the American myth, US felt involved in the world and thought to have the best democratic government. The countries in Europe, as well as other countries of the world, accepted the American myth through immigration policy and popular culture. This myth inspired hopes in many countries and their citizens, even though they were far from US. The Americans took advantage of this opportunity to impose their own values and interests. As the US economic and political powers expanded, the expansion of American foreign polices and their interest clashed with the various interest and cultural sensitivities of other nations. When a clash of political and cultural interest occurred, the countries that had invested in US became disappointed. They started criticizing the Americans; the Citizens of the United States also became victim to this disappointment from their country. They as well engaged in the criticism of the American myths (O’Connor and Martin, 2006). Conclusion While concluding this study, it is worth noting that the American society has been described to be mechanistic in a nature. As a result, this means that America is influenced by forms and purposes of mechanical processes that represent the main features of the American lifestyle. Based on this, therefore, the American lifestyle is described using mechanical metaphor, mechanical symbols, and mechanical cults. Foley says that, despite all these descriptions, US is not different to other industrial states. The only difference with other nations is the degree of penetration of the mechanistic concepts in the society. These concepts are used to define the framework and characterize the way the US government, institutions and powers operate. Consequently, the concepts provide ethical grounds upon which constitutional issues are addressed and examined. This shows the uniqueness of US from other nations in the world (Foley, 1990). References List Crockatt, R. (2007). After 9/11, London, Routledge. p. 64. De-Tocqueville, A. (2007). Democracy in America; Volumes 1 and 2, New York, Digireads.com Publishing. p. 134 Foley, M. (1990). Laws, Men & Machines: Modern American Government & the Appeal of Newtonian Mechanics, London, Routledge. pp. 1-2. Hollander, P. (1992). Anti-Americanism: Irrational & Rational, New York, Transaction Publishers. p. 334. Hodgson, G. (2006). Equal than Others: America from Nixon to the New Century, New York, Princeton University Press. p. 284. Ignatieff, M. (2005). American exceptionalism and human rights. [Online] Available at www.princeton.edu/~amoravcs/library/paradox.pdf [Accessed15 December. 2012]. Kahn, P. W. (2011). Political Theology: Four New Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty, Columbia, Columbia University Press. p. 16. Kolodziej, E. A. & Roger, E. Kanet. (2008). From Superpower to Besieged Global Power: Restoring World Order after the Failure of the Bush Doctrine, Georgia, University of Georgia Press. p. 16. Lieven.(2012). America Right Or Wrong: An Anatomy of American Nationalism, Oxford, Oxford University Press. p. 16. McDougall, W. A. (2012). American Exceptionalism Exposed. [Online] Available at: www.fpri.org/.../201210.mcdougall.americanexceptionalism [Accessed 15 December 2012]. Nau, H. R. (2002). At Home Abroad: Identity and Power in American Foreign Policy, Ontario, Cornell University Press. p. 1. O'Connor, B. and Martin, G. (2006). The Rise of Anti-Americanism, London, Routledge. pp. 4-64. O'Connor, B. (2007). Anti-Americanism: History, Causes, and Themes in the 21st century, London, Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 150. The National Security Strategy of the United States of America. (2002). The National Security Strategy - US Department of State [Online]. Available at: www.state.gov/documents/organization/63562.pdf [Accessed 15 December 2012]. Tyrrell, I. (2010). What is American exceptionalism? [Online]. 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