Migration from India to the United States of America - Research Paper Example

Migration from India to the United s of America of the of the Migration from India to the United s of America Introduction Migration to the US from India increased manifold with the advent of the new immigration policy of 1965. Thereafter, there was a gradual increase in the annual migration from India to the US, and the Indians became a significant community in that nation. Immigration involves considerable stress, and the immigrants undergo various stages of adjustment to the new nation and its peculiar cultural mores. Contextual factors play a major role in the cultural changes that take place in immigrants (Poulsen, Karuppaswamy, & Natraja, 2005, p. 404). As such, the 1970 census disclosed that there were 51,000 foreign born individuals from India in the US. This number increased to 1.5 million, by the year 2006 (Terrazas, 2008). By the year 2011, there were 1.9 million Indian immigrants in the US, and they were the third largest immigrant community after the Mexican and Chinese immigrants (Whatley & Batalova, 2013). In general, Indian immigrants possess very high educational qualifications, and are endowed with outstanding English language skills. Most of the immigrants from India enter the US on employment-visas. These immigrants tend to live above the federal poverty line, and are distinguished from the other immigrant communities, in this regard. Furthermore, Indian immigrants are principally limited to the working age group, when compared to the general immigrants. With respect to education, the second most common country of origin for higher education in the US is India, with China occupying the first place (Whatley & Batalova, 2013). The above diagram, displays the distribution of Indian born individuals, across the States of the Union. The pie chart appended below depicts the proportion of immigrants in the US. The distribution of the Indian born population by age and gender in the US, as of the year 2011, is portrayed in the histogram appended below. Source: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2011. Out of the 1.9 million Indian immigrants residing in the US, as of 2011, a third were located in California and New Jersey. With regard to major metropolitan regions, around 25% of the Indian immigrants were located in Chicago, greater New York, and San Jose (Whatley & Batalova, 2013). As of the year 2012, 66,000 Indian-born immigrants were provided with legal permanent residency in the US. Furthermore, it was observed that Indian immigrants usually arrived in the US on the basis of legitimate employment. The asylum seekers from India were insignificant, and constituted a mere one percent of all asylum seekers, in the year 2012 (Whatley & Batalova, 2013). In the very same year, 43,000 immigrants from India were made naturalized US citizens. This proportion was in excess of the total foreign-born population. As of the year 2012, more than 46% of the Indian-born green card holders obtained the eligibility to be rendered naturalized US citizens. In addition, in the year 2011, more than 20% of the non-immigrants in the US were from India. Among the international students studying in the US, the second largest group was that of the Indian-born. These students were chiefly pursuing academics in the American institutes of higher learning (Whatley & Batalova, 2013). Literature Review The majority of international migrants have to adapt to the culture and mores of the nation to which they emigrate. In addition, they have to blend in with the society at the new location. From this perspective, individuals who migrate to other countries experience significant cultural adjustments. Some researchers have opined that a thorough understanding of acculturation has to acknowledge that cultural adjustment as a group and as individuals, results from the interaction between two or more groups (Gold & Nawyn, 2013, p. 10). In their article, “On the relative rewards to immigration: a comparison of the relative labour market position of Indians in the USA, the UK and India”, de Coulon and Wadsworth provide some interesting insights. Approximately, 230,000 people left the Indian shores and migrated to foreign climes. Indian immigrants tend to regard the US and the UK as ideal destinations, and as much as 24% of these immigrants had migrated to these countries (de Coulon & Wadsworth, 2010, p. 149). Furthermore, they point out that in the UK, Indians constitute the largest migrant group, whilst in the US, they form the third largest group. Approximately, a million individuals, who had been born in India, reside in the US. This is around 0.3% of the population of the US. Until the year 1970, the UK was the favored destination of the Indians. This underwent a transformation, and Indians prefer to migrate to the US or Canada (de Coulon & Wadsworth, 2010, p. 149). With regard to the US immigration policy, these authors state that this policy, with respect to immigrants from India, tends to be influenced by the absolute restrictions placed upon immigrants from specific countries. Since the 1960s, there has been a marked preference for skilled Indian immigrants, or for Indian workers in areas with labor shortage (de Coulon & Wadsworth, 2010, p. 149). Opinion in the US Regarding Migration from India The individuals who migrate from India to the US have a distinct societal characterization. This is in the context of their ethnicity, which constitutes an intricate occurrence. Moreover, ethnicity is intimately associated with economic, historical, political, and psychological realisms (Chopra, 1995, p. 1269). In addition, the people of India have been regarded as Aryans or Caucasians. Due to this identification, these people were not categorized as Oriental people, despite being deemed to be Asians. The Orientals had been envisaging increasing discrimination, by several citizens’ groups that were seized with protecting employment and promoting the exclusion of such people. The fact that Orientals could be easily identified as a distinct ethnic group facilitated such discrimination (Chopra, 1995, p. 1276). For instance, in the state of California, the white supremacists emerged the predominant social group. These people were opposed to the presence of dark-skinned people in employment and society. Such discrimination was noticeable in cities, fields, and mines. The immigrants from Ireland, Germany, and the Scandinavian countries were spared, chiefly due to their being whites (Chopra, 1995, p. 1276). Experiences of Indian Migrants Due to the unique nature of the contextual factors, it would be incorrect to generalize the immigration experience of the immigrants. A description of the experiences of an immigrant is provided in the sequel. This immigrant came to the US in the year 1998, when she was 23 years old. She had completed her masters in social work from an Indian university. It was her intention to undertake higher studies in family studies in the US. She had been preceded by her elder brothers, who had migrated to the US in the pursuit of higher education (Poulsen, Karuppaswamy, & Natraja, 2005, p. 410). Moreover, this immigrant hailed from an orthodox Brahmin family of South India. In her family, education was regarded as being very important for boys, as well girls. There was a sizeable Indian population in the US at that time, and this served to allay the fears of her parents, in sending her to the US. Moreover, several of her relatives had already settled down in the US (Poulsen, Karuppaswamy, & Natraja, 2005, p. 410). The process for immigrating to the US, did not cause much anxiety to this immigrant, as the process had become quite familiar to the Indians. The process had fundamentally entailed the submission of applications to Universities, communicating with the professors in those universities, and the obtention of a student visa from the US Consulate, in order to gain entry into the US. In this endeavor, there were several other aspirants to higher education in the US, which served to dispel any apprehensions or feelings of loneliness (Poulsen, Karuppaswamy, & Natraja, 2005, p. 410). Additionally, during this period, the process of globalization was being strongly established in India, due to the economic reforms introduced in the nation’s economy. Pizza Hut and McDonald’s were gradually becoming familiar to the people. There was quite some interest in the apparel being donned by the Americans, and a certain amount of familiarity with the American way of life was attained, chiefly due to the prevalence of satellite television channels (Poulsen, Karuppaswamy, & Natraja, 2005, p. 411). Moreover, the Internet revolution was in full swing, with Internet cafés mushrooming in every locality. Despite the predominance of British English, US English with its quaint idiom and accent was gradually making headway. Thus, the Indian middle-class was rapidly acquiring familiarity with American English and culture. At the same time, there was a tremendous spurt in the number of Indians with strong information technology skills (Poulsen, Karuppaswamy, & Natraja, 2005, p. 411). These highly skilled Indians were given a red carpet welcome by the software companies of Silicon Valley. Policy Frameworks The Immigration Act of 1990 ushered in a visa system that promoted the entry of high-tech workers who had a sponsoring employer. Such workers were provided with visas that were valid for a maximum of six years. Thereafter, some of these workers obtained the eligibility to apply for US citizenship. Another achievement of this Act was that it enhanced the share of employment-based visas in the total immigration flow. Thus, the US has made it very clear that it desires highly qualified and skilled immigrants from India. The dependents of such immigrants qualify for entry (de Coulon & Wadsworth, 2010, p. 150). Consequently, several family members have also been permitted to enter the US, along with these highly skilled workers. The US Government restricted the number of immigrants to the country, during the 20th Century. One of the principal statutes, in this context, was the Refugee Act of 1980. The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 was enacted with the specific purpose of precluding the entry of illegal immigrants from Latin America. This was to be realized by imposing sanctions upon the employers who employed illegal aliens. With the enactment of the Immigration Act of 1990, there was an upsurge in the number of immigrants to the US, and the increase was around 40%. Subsequently, the US Congress enacted three Acts, which regulated the rights of immigrants in the US, in addition to influencing immigration control (Maps of World, 2014). As such, the immigration law of the US is not only intricate but also bewildering. The Immigration and Naturalization Act (INA) governs the existing immigration policy. It mandates that the number of permanent immigrants to the US, per year, should not exceed 675,000. In addition, the US President and Congress can provide a separate quota for refugees. The following principles determine immigration to the US. First, reunification of families. Second, presence of skills of value to the US economy. Third, protection for refugees. Fourth, promotion of diversity (Immigration Policy Center, 2014). Moreover, the Obama Administration has preferred an approach to immigration control that adopts stern measures. Under this dispensation, more than 20,000 agents of the US Border Patrol have been deployed along the borders. This constitutes twice the number deployed 10 years ago and the highest in the history of the US. In addition to this, several raids, across the nation have been conducted by the Obama Administration to arrest criminals without proper documents (Lee, 2013). At the same time, the US Government has enhanced the auditing of companies that employ unauthorized workers. These policies have led to very high levels of deportation. For instance, in the year 2011, around 400,000 undocumented immigrants had been deported; whereas, in the year 2006, this number was just 281,000. The Secure Communities program, which had been commenced in the year 2008, was expanded by the Obama Administration. This has empowered the local law enforcement authorities to convey the fingerprints of arrested individuals to the Immigration and Customs Enforcement agency (Lee, 2013). The objective behind the sharing of such information is to scrutinize the criminal history and status of the arrested persons, with a view to deporting them, if possible. The Secure Communities program has been criticized for merely deporting immigrants for minor offences, while the most dangerous and violent offenders have not been targeted (Lee, 2013). This program has been accused of having destroyed the faith that had existed between law enforcement and the immigrant communities. In addition, the Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act of 2005 had the objective of preventing the illegal entry of immigrants from Mexico. Immigration reform was addressed by the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006. This Act served to enhance the number of guest workers in the US, by means of the “blue card” visa program. There has been an increase in the multi-racial and multi-cultural features that have entered the US with changes being effected to the ethnic composition of the nation. The reaction to such changes has been an intensification of the immigration issue (Maps of World, 2014). In response to these drastic transformations, some Americans have expressed their proclivity for enforcing more stringent immigration laws. These individuals contend that the US citizens are deprived of jobs, due to the immigrants. Moreover, it is alleged that immigrants pose a threat to national security and appropriate public benefits (Maps of World, 2014). However, several of the source nations have depicted a trend to recall their ex-patriots. This has rendered immigration a temporary phenomenon, to some extent. Several solutions had been proposed to the issue of talent migrating to foreign nations. One of these was to induce migrants to return to their nation, after they had garnered work experience and wealth abroad (Bodvarsson & Van den Berg, 2013, p. 290). Nevertheless, it is commonplace for nations to accord differential treatment to the technical and management staff of multinational corporations, in comparison to immigrants. In most of the nations, the personnel of multinational firms are granted special visas, without the imposition of any quota. With regard to the US, a fifth of the permanent immigrant visas are earmarked for immigrants who possess the desirable skills and their family members. These constitute the employment-based EB-1 to EB-5 visas (Bodvarsson & Van den Berg, 2013, p. 291). The EB-1 visas are provided to immigrants who are the managers of multinational firms. Immigrants with exceptional ability or very high educational qualifications are granted EB-2 visas. This group, frequently includes the employees of foreign firms that have operations in the US. Moreover, the EB-5 visas are granted to foreigners who reside in the US, in order to establish a new business and who will employ workers from the US. The usual members of this category are the employees of multinational firms (Bodvarsson & Van den Berg, 2013, p. 291). Furthermore, the US issues L1 visas, without any limit, for intra-company transfers. For instance, in the year 2001, around 328,500 of these visas had been issued. This was twice the number issued in the year 1996. Subsequently, in the year 2002, the US enacted legislation that required L1 visa recipients to be employed by the multinational company for a year to six months (Bodvarsson & Van den Berg, 2013, p. 291). The tremendous increase in the number of L1 visas has attracted considerable criticism. Those who oppose this increase contend that the multinational firms with operations in the US, misuse this category for bringing in lesser paid workers from foreign countries to work in the US. There is some truth in this accusation. However, there has been a substantial increase in foreign direct investment in the US, over the previous decade. This has enhanced the frequency of cross-border transition of employees and experts by the multinational firms. The increase in the number of L1 visas has been chiefly attributed to this development (Bodvarsson & Van den Berg, 2013, p. 292). Moreover, in several of the developed nations, it proves to be easier to procure work or temporary residence visas, rather than permanent residence visas. This situation indicates the intention of the destination nation to fulfil the labor requirements of specific industries located in its territory. Another consideration is that the native population of the destination nation could desire that foreign workers should be permitted for a temporary stay. This would prevent these workers from acquiring long-term public benefits. In addition, it would ensure that such workers did not establish long-term social relationships (Bodvarsson & Van den Berg, 2013, p. 292). Family Based Immigration The principle of family reunification is regarded as an important principle that exerts a major influence upon immigration policy. Certain family members can be legally introduced into the US, by lawful permanent residents (LPRs) and US citizens, under the category of family based immigration. On an average, 480,000 family based visas are made available every year. Such immigrants are admitted to the US as the immediate relatives of US citizens or through the family preference system (Immigration Policy Center, 2014). Employment Based Immigration Immigrants with valuable skills are provided with a number of procedures for entering the US, on a temporary or permanent basis. With regard to temporary non-immigrant workers, there are around twenty types of visas. Some of these are; L visas for intra-company transfers; P visas for athletes, entertainers, and skilled performers; R visas for religious workers, A visas for employees of diplomatic missions; and a wide range of H visas for highly skilled and less skilled employment (Immigration Policy Center, 2014). As such, the migration policy consists of the right to abstain from migrating, and the provision of socio-political rights to migrants. This policy requires change in the country of origin, as well as the country of destination. People tend to have similar needs, whether it is the source or destination nation. Some of these are; employment, better housing and remuneration, national healthcare system, and the right to participate in unions without fear of repression or retaliation. The Obama Administration had promised to provide four million jobs, and this has been eagerly awaited by the US workers (Bacon, 2013, p. 22). Moreover, India is a nation that experiences immigration, as well as emigration. In fact, a large number of people migrate to India. These individuals are chiefly from Africa and Asia. However, a significant number of people, from the Western nations, migrate to India. There is a vast difference between the people who migrate to India and those who migrate from India. Some of the more prominent areas of such difference are education, motivation, and socio-economic characteristics (Khadria, Kumar, Sarkar, & Sharma, 2008). It is commonplace for large number of people from Bangladesh, Nepal, Tibet, and other neighboring nations to migrate to India. In Addition, several multinational companies have preferred India for the purpose of outsourcing their operations. Moreover, healthcare in India has developed to the extent that people from the developing, as well as the developed world visit India, in order to obtain high quality medical attention at an affordable price (Khadria, Kumar, Sarkar, & Sharma, 2008). Consequently, a transformation takes place in the destination nations’ migration policies, due to the following factors. First, demographic disparities and resulting labor shortages. Second, the compulsion to achieve superiority in the global market, due to increasing competition and internationalization. Third, security concerns to protect the citizens from terrorist activities and undesirable immigrants (Khadria, Kumar, Sarkar, & Sharma, 2008). Economic migrants belong to professional or occupational groups. These individuals primarily engage in economic activity. Examples of economic migrants are; high-skilled, semi-skilled, and low-skilled workers. Such people are granted a visa by the destination nation, which permits them to reside in that country for some specific period. The entry, working conditions, remuneration, integration and other features of immigrants are regulated by legislation that specifically addresses these issues. Most of the economic migrants prefer to enter the destination nation, by legal means. However, there are some migrants who adopt unlawful and unethical methods to gain entry into the destination nation (Khadria, Kumar, Sarkar, & Sharma, 2008). As such, migration in the US has assumed such significance, due to the ever increasing visibility of the communities from the developing nations. A certain amount of stereotyping has transpired. For instance, domestic workers in the upper class US homes tend to belong to the Philippines, farm labor community hails from Mexico, Chinese presence is on the increase in the retail sector, and Indian software professionals are significantly visible in the information technology industry of the US (Kamat, Mir, & Mathew, 2004, p. 5). After India freed itself from the repressive colonial yoke, it embarked upon an ambitious program of improving itself. During this epoch, India concentrated upon power generation, as power is indispensable for industrial and economic growth. Several large dams were constructed, and it became possible for India to undertake large projects in iron and steel, ship building, nuclear fuel, and aeronautics. The emphasis was upon technological development. One of the outcomes of this focus had been the emergence of Indian software professionals, as highly competent professionals in the world (Kamat, Mir, & Mathew, 2004, p. 7). New Policy Proposals A new plan was proposed by the US President Barak Obama to make the process of immigration, an efficient system. The plan envisaged by the US President aims to implement an intelligent and efficient immigration system. This mechanism will protect the nation’s borders and prosecute employers who employ immigrants who do not possess the necessary documents to reside and work in the US. according to this plan, individuals who do not have the required documents have to pay their taxes and a penalty, acquire the necessary proficiency in English, and submit to background investigations, prior to obtaining the eligibility to become citizens. This plan aims to provide visas to entrepreneurs from foreign nation, who intend to commence businesses in the US. Moreover, due to this plan, the best qualified foreign graduate students can remain in the nation after completing their studies (the White House President Barack Obama, n.d.). Furthermore, families are to be reunited expeditiously and humanely. The President’s proposal aims to get rid of the extant backlogs in the family-sponsored immigration system. This is to be achieved by recapturing unused visas, and increasing the number of visas granted annually, on a temporary basis. With regard to the upper limit on family-sponsored immigration, the President’s proposal intends to increase it to 15% from the extant 7%. In addition, this proposal makes immigration law clearer, with respect to the protection of vulnerable immigrants. In order to assist immigrant entrepreneurs, the Obama Administration introduced the “Entrepreneur Pathways”. This online facility provides considerable clarification regarding the immigration process for the immigrating entrepreneur. (the White House President Barack Obama, n.d.). It is necessary to welcome immigrant entrepreneurs, as they would commence new ventures in the nation and generate employment. In addition, the President’s proposal is keen to retain the more talented math and science graduates in the nation, for a longer spell, and to attract the highly skilled immigrants. As such, immigration can be made more effective by adapting the newly proposed changes to the US immigration policy. References Bacon, D. (2013). Excerpt from "The Right to Stay Home: How U.S. Policy Drives Mexican Migration by David Bacon. Social Policy, 43(4), 21-22. Bodvarsson, Ö. B., & Van den Berg, H. (2013). The Economics of Immigration: Theory and Policy. New York, NY, USA: Springer Science & Business Media. Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act. (2005). Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America: 109th United States Congress. Chopra, K. M. (1995). Comment: A Forgotten Minority An American Perspective: Historical and Current Discrimination against Asians from the Indian Subcontinent. Detroit College of Law Review, 1269-1348. Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act. (2006). Washington, Distirct of Columbia, United States of America: 109th United States Congress. de Coulon, A., & Wadsworth, J. (2010). On the relative rewards to immigration: a comparison of the relative labour market position of Indians in the USA, the UK and India. Review of Economics of the Household, 8(1), 147-169. Gold , S. J., & Nawyn, S. J. (2013). Routledge International Handbook of Migration Studies. New York, NY, USA: Routledge. Immigration Act . (1990, November 29). Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America: 101st United States Congress. Immigration Policy Center. (2014, March 1). How the United States Immigration System Works: A Fact Sheet. Retrieved October 27, 2014, from http://www.immigrationpolicy.org/just-facts/how-united-states-immigration-system-works-fact-sheet Kamat, S., Mir, A., & Mathew, B. (2004). Producing hi-tech: globalization, the state and migrant subjects. Globalisation, Societies & Education, 2(1), 5-23. Khadria, B., Kumar, P., Sarkar, S., & Sharma, R. (2008, December). International Migration Policy: Issues and Perspectives for India. Retrieved October 27, 2014, from Jawarhalal Nehru University, New Delhi, India: http://www.jnu.ac.in/library/IMDS_Working_Papers/IMDS_Dec_2008_WP_1_1-200001.pdf Lee, B. (2013, April 19). The U.S. Immigration Debate. Retrieved November 5, 2014, from Council on Foreign Relations: http://www.cfr.org/immigration/us-immigration-debate/p11149 Maps of World. (2014). Immigration Policy USA. Retrieved November 5, 2014, from http://www.mapsofworld.com/usa/immigration/immigration-policy-usa.html Poulsen, S., Karuppaswamy, N., & Natraja, R. (2005). Immigration as a Dynamic Experience: Personal Narratives and Clinical Implications for Family Therapists. Contemporary Family Therapy, 27(3), 404-414. Terrazas, A. (2008, July 11). Indian Immigrants in the United States. Retrieved October 25, 2014, from Migration Policy Institute: http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/indian-immigrants-united-states-1/ the White House President Barack Obama. (n.d.). Streamlining Legal Immigration. Retrieved November 6, 2014, from Immigration: http://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/immigration/streamlining-immigration Whatley, M., & Batalova, J. (2013, August 21). Indian Immigrants in the United States. Retrieved from Migration Policy Institute: http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/indian-immigrants-united-states Read More